1. Black/Multicultural Feminism
Overview
Black/Multicultural Feminism argues that gender cannot be understood in isolation—it must be analyzed
alongside race, class, and other forms of oppression. This theory critiques mainstream feminism for focusing
primarily on white, middle-class women's experiences while ignoring the unique struggles of women of
color, working-class women, and other marginalized groups.
Major Scholars & Works
● Kimberlé Crenshaw – Developed Intersectionality, explaining how race, gender, and class interact
to shape oppression.
● Patricia Hill Collins – Developed the Matrix of Domination, emphasizing how multiple systems of
power (race, class, gender) overlap.
● Bell Hooks – Critiqued white feminism and argued that men of color are often victims of oppression
themselves, rather than solely being oppressors.
Key Concepts
● Intersectionality – People experience multiple forms of oppression simultaneously (e.g., Black
women face both racism and sexism).
● Matrix of Domination – Systems of power (race, gender, class) interact to shape oppression
differently for different groups.
● Master Status – Gender, race, or another identity may dominate how a person is perceived and
treated in society.
Application to Readings
● Reading #2: "Men: Comrades in Struggle" – Bell Hooks
○ Critiques feminism for ignoring race and class, arguing that men of color face oppression too.
● Reading #3: "Masculinity as Homophobia" – Michael Kimmel
○ Shows how race and masculinity interact, with men of color often being portrayed as threats.
● Reading #7: "Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?" – Correll et al.
○ Examines how race and class affect workplace discrimination against mothers.
● Reading #10: "The Cognitive Dimension of Household Labor" – Daminger
○ Explores how women of color disproportionately bear cognitive labor in households due to
race and economic pressures.
1
,2. Global/Transnational Feminism
Overview
Global/Transnational Feminism examines how global capitalism, colonialism, and international labor
systems shape gender roles. Unlike traditional feminism, which often focuses on issues in Western societies,
this theory analyzes the global economy, migration, and labor markets to understand how gender inequalities
differ across countries and cultures.
Major Scholars & Works
● Chandra Mohanty – Criticized how Western feminism often misrepresents women in the Global
South as universally oppressed.
● Inderpal Grewal & Caren Kaplan – Examined how globalization affects women’s labor and
economic roles.
Key Concepts
● Neocolonialism – Even after formal colonial rule ended, Western economic policies and cultural
norms continue to shape gender roles in non-Western societies.
● Global Care Chain – Poor women from the Global South migrate to wealthier countries to work as
domestic caregivers, often leaving their own families behind.
● Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) – Economic policies imposed on developing countries by
organizations like the IMF and World Bank, often disproportionately harming women.
Application to Readings
● Reading #6: "Falling Back on Plan B" – Kathleen Gerson
○ Examines how global economic shifts (e.g., declining job security) affect men’s and women’s
roles in relationships and work.
3. Marxist Feminism
Overview
Marxist Feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of gender inequality. It sees women’s oppression
as tied to economic exploitation and believes that true gender equality can only be achieved by dismantling
capitalism.
Major Scholars & Works
2
, ● Friedrich Engels – Argued that private property and capitalism led to women’s subjugation.
● Heidi Hartmann – Developed the idea of the "capitalist patriarchy," explaining how economic and
gender oppression are intertwined.
● Silvia Federici – Critiqued unpaid domestic labor, arguing that women’s unpaid work is essential to
capitalism but is not valued.
Key Concepts
● Capitalism & Gender – Capitalism relies on women’s unpaid labor in the home while also
underpaying them in the workforce.
● False Consciousness – Women are often unaware that their oppression is tied to capitalism and
instead see it as "natural."
● The Glass Ceiling – Women are blocked from higher-paying, leadership roles due to systemic
discrimination.
● Work-Family Conflict – Capitalism forces women to balance paid labor with unpaid domestic
responsibilities.
Application to Readings
● Reading #2: "Men: Comrades in Struggle" – Bell Hooks
○ Critiques radical feminism for blaming men instead of recognizing capitalism as the true
source of oppression.
● Reading #5: "Stylish Hard Bodies" – Susan Alexander
○ Shows how capitalism turns masculinity into a product, forcing men to consume (e.g., fitness,
fashion) to prove their manhood.
● Reading #6: "Falling Back on Plan B" – Kathleen Gerson
○ Examines how economic shifts push men and women back into traditional roles, reinforcing
capitalist gender norms.
● Reading #7: "Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?" – Correll et al.
○ Demonstrates how capitalism punishes working mothers, forcing them into lower-paying
jobs.
● Reading #10: "The Cognitive Dimension of Household Labor" – Daminger
○ Shows how women’s unpaid mental labor at home supports capitalism by allowing men to
focus on paid work.
4. Postmodern Feminism
Overview
3
,Postmodern Feminism argues that gender is a socially constructed identity, not a biological reality. It
challenges traditional feminist ideas that assume a fixed definition of “womanhood” and instead focuses on
how media, language, and culture shape gender.
Major Scholars & Works
● Judith Butler – Developed the concept of "Gender Performativity," arguing that gender is something
we "do," not something we "are."
● Michel Foucault – Argued that power operates through discourse—the way we talk about gender
shapes what it means.
● Donna Haraway – Wrote "A Cyborg Manifesto," critiquing the idea of fixed gender identities.
Key Concepts
● Gender Performativity – Gender is performed through behaviors, clothing, speech, and societal
expectations.
● Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis – Language influences thought, meaning that the way we talk about gender
shapes how we understand it.
● Cultural Lag Hypothesis – Cultural norms about gender often lag behind social changes.
Application to Readings
● Reading #1: "The Five Sexes, Revisited" – Anne Fausto-Sterling
○ Challenges the binary definition of sex and gender, arguing that more than two sexes exist.
● Reading #4: "The Egg and the Sperm" – Emily Martin
○ Shows how scientific language reinforces gender stereotypes, portraying sperm as "active"
and eggs as "passive."
● Reading #5: "Stylish Hard Bodies" – Susan Alexander
○ Argues that masculinity is a constructed identity, shaped by media and marketing.
● Reading #8: "The Perfect 10" – Jeffrey Segrave
○ Examines how sports language reinforces male dominance in sexual relationships.
● Reading #9: "Hooking Up on College Campuses" – Paula England et al.
○ Shows how modern dating culture reflects shifting gender norms, but still maintains
inequalities.
5. Structural Functionalist Theory (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
4
,Gender roles exist because they serve a function in maintaining social stability. This theory views gender
differences as necessary for the smooth operation of society.
Key Concepts
● Expressive vs. Instrumental Roles (Parsons & Bales) – Men traditionally take on instrumental
(breadwinner) roles, while women take on expressive (caretaking) roles.
● Regnerus & Popenoe’s Research – Examines how traditional family structures influence gender
socialization and stability.
● Critique – Overlooks how gender roles are socially constructed rather than biologically determined.
6. Evolutionary Psychology / Sociobiological Theory
(Prior Exam)
Core Idea
Gender differences are rooted in evolutionary adaptations that maximized reproductive success. This
perspective argues that behaviors developed over time to enhance survival and reproduction.
Key Concepts
● Genetic Self-Interest & Fitness – Suggests behaviors are driven by a desire to pass on genes.
● Paternal Certainty & Monogamy – Argues men evolved to value monogamy to ensure paternity,
while women seek stable partners for offspring survival.
● Grandmother Hypothesis – Explains why women live past reproductive age, arguing they help
ensure the survival of grandchildren.
● Critique – Often criticized for being biologically deterministic and ignoring cultural influences.
7. Biological / Physiological Theory (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
This theory attributes gender differences in behavior, abilities, and social roles to biological factors such as
genetics, hormones, and brain structure. It argues that innate physiological traits influence how men and
women think, act, and interact in society.
Key Concepts
5
, ● Hormonal Differences – Testosterone is linked to higher aggression and risk-taking in men, while
estrogen is associated with nurturing behaviors in women.
● Brain Structure & Lateralization – Some research suggests that male and female brains process
information differently, with men excelling in spatial reasoning and women in verbal communication.
● Parental Investment Theory – Evolutionary biology suggests that women are naturally more
selective in mate choice due to the higher reproductive costs of pregnancy and child-rearing.
● Critique – This perspective tends to reinforce gender stereotypes and often downplays the role of
socialization, culture, and structural inequality in shaping gender differences.
8. Liberal Feminism (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
Gender inequality stems from unequal opportunities and legal discrimination. The focus is on reforming
existing institutions rather than dismantling them.
Key Concepts
● Ascribed vs. Achieved Status – Gender should not determine one’s opportunities.
● Sameness/Reformist Feminists – Emphasize equality through policy changes, legal rights, and
workplace reforms.
● Critique – This approach does not address deeper structural inequalities.
9. Radical Feminism (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
Gender oppression is deeply embedded in society and must be completely dismantled. Patriarchy is seen as
the root cause of women’s subjugation.
Key Concepts
● Contrast with Liberal Feminism – Radical feminists see liberal feminism as too moderate.
● Opposition to Patriarchy – Sees male domination as a systemic issue that must be overturned.
● Critique – Overlooks race, class, and economic structures as contributing factors to gender
oppression.
10. Cultural Feminism (Prior Exam)
6
Overview
Black/Multicultural Feminism argues that gender cannot be understood in isolation—it must be analyzed
alongside race, class, and other forms of oppression. This theory critiques mainstream feminism for focusing
primarily on white, middle-class women's experiences while ignoring the unique struggles of women of
color, working-class women, and other marginalized groups.
Major Scholars & Works
● Kimberlé Crenshaw – Developed Intersectionality, explaining how race, gender, and class interact
to shape oppression.
● Patricia Hill Collins – Developed the Matrix of Domination, emphasizing how multiple systems of
power (race, class, gender) overlap.
● Bell Hooks – Critiqued white feminism and argued that men of color are often victims of oppression
themselves, rather than solely being oppressors.
Key Concepts
● Intersectionality – People experience multiple forms of oppression simultaneously (e.g., Black
women face both racism and sexism).
● Matrix of Domination – Systems of power (race, gender, class) interact to shape oppression
differently for different groups.
● Master Status – Gender, race, or another identity may dominate how a person is perceived and
treated in society.
Application to Readings
● Reading #2: "Men: Comrades in Struggle" – Bell Hooks
○ Critiques feminism for ignoring race and class, arguing that men of color face oppression too.
● Reading #3: "Masculinity as Homophobia" – Michael Kimmel
○ Shows how race and masculinity interact, with men of color often being portrayed as threats.
● Reading #7: "Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?" – Correll et al.
○ Examines how race and class affect workplace discrimination against mothers.
● Reading #10: "The Cognitive Dimension of Household Labor" – Daminger
○ Explores how women of color disproportionately bear cognitive labor in households due to
race and economic pressures.
1
,2. Global/Transnational Feminism
Overview
Global/Transnational Feminism examines how global capitalism, colonialism, and international labor
systems shape gender roles. Unlike traditional feminism, which often focuses on issues in Western societies,
this theory analyzes the global economy, migration, and labor markets to understand how gender inequalities
differ across countries and cultures.
Major Scholars & Works
● Chandra Mohanty – Criticized how Western feminism often misrepresents women in the Global
South as universally oppressed.
● Inderpal Grewal & Caren Kaplan – Examined how globalization affects women’s labor and
economic roles.
Key Concepts
● Neocolonialism – Even after formal colonial rule ended, Western economic policies and cultural
norms continue to shape gender roles in non-Western societies.
● Global Care Chain – Poor women from the Global South migrate to wealthier countries to work as
domestic caregivers, often leaving their own families behind.
● Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) – Economic policies imposed on developing countries by
organizations like the IMF and World Bank, often disproportionately harming women.
Application to Readings
● Reading #6: "Falling Back on Plan B" – Kathleen Gerson
○ Examines how global economic shifts (e.g., declining job security) affect men’s and women’s
roles in relationships and work.
3. Marxist Feminism
Overview
Marxist Feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of gender inequality. It sees women’s oppression
as tied to economic exploitation and believes that true gender equality can only be achieved by dismantling
capitalism.
Major Scholars & Works
2
, ● Friedrich Engels – Argued that private property and capitalism led to women’s subjugation.
● Heidi Hartmann – Developed the idea of the "capitalist patriarchy," explaining how economic and
gender oppression are intertwined.
● Silvia Federici – Critiqued unpaid domestic labor, arguing that women’s unpaid work is essential to
capitalism but is not valued.
Key Concepts
● Capitalism & Gender – Capitalism relies on women’s unpaid labor in the home while also
underpaying them in the workforce.
● False Consciousness – Women are often unaware that their oppression is tied to capitalism and
instead see it as "natural."
● The Glass Ceiling – Women are blocked from higher-paying, leadership roles due to systemic
discrimination.
● Work-Family Conflict – Capitalism forces women to balance paid labor with unpaid domestic
responsibilities.
Application to Readings
● Reading #2: "Men: Comrades in Struggle" – Bell Hooks
○ Critiques radical feminism for blaming men instead of recognizing capitalism as the true
source of oppression.
● Reading #5: "Stylish Hard Bodies" – Susan Alexander
○ Shows how capitalism turns masculinity into a product, forcing men to consume (e.g., fitness,
fashion) to prove their manhood.
● Reading #6: "Falling Back on Plan B" – Kathleen Gerson
○ Examines how economic shifts push men and women back into traditional roles, reinforcing
capitalist gender norms.
● Reading #7: "Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?" – Correll et al.
○ Demonstrates how capitalism punishes working mothers, forcing them into lower-paying
jobs.
● Reading #10: "The Cognitive Dimension of Household Labor" – Daminger
○ Shows how women’s unpaid mental labor at home supports capitalism by allowing men to
focus on paid work.
4. Postmodern Feminism
Overview
3
,Postmodern Feminism argues that gender is a socially constructed identity, not a biological reality. It
challenges traditional feminist ideas that assume a fixed definition of “womanhood” and instead focuses on
how media, language, and culture shape gender.
Major Scholars & Works
● Judith Butler – Developed the concept of "Gender Performativity," arguing that gender is something
we "do," not something we "are."
● Michel Foucault – Argued that power operates through discourse—the way we talk about gender
shapes what it means.
● Donna Haraway – Wrote "A Cyborg Manifesto," critiquing the idea of fixed gender identities.
Key Concepts
● Gender Performativity – Gender is performed through behaviors, clothing, speech, and societal
expectations.
● Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis – Language influences thought, meaning that the way we talk about gender
shapes how we understand it.
● Cultural Lag Hypothesis – Cultural norms about gender often lag behind social changes.
Application to Readings
● Reading #1: "The Five Sexes, Revisited" – Anne Fausto-Sterling
○ Challenges the binary definition of sex and gender, arguing that more than two sexes exist.
● Reading #4: "The Egg and the Sperm" – Emily Martin
○ Shows how scientific language reinforces gender stereotypes, portraying sperm as "active"
and eggs as "passive."
● Reading #5: "Stylish Hard Bodies" – Susan Alexander
○ Argues that masculinity is a constructed identity, shaped by media and marketing.
● Reading #8: "The Perfect 10" – Jeffrey Segrave
○ Examines how sports language reinforces male dominance in sexual relationships.
● Reading #9: "Hooking Up on College Campuses" – Paula England et al.
○ Shows how modern dating culture reflects shifting gender norms, but still maintains
inequalities.
5. Structural Functionalist Theory (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
4
,Gender roles exist because they serve a function in maintaining social stability. This theory views gender
differences as necessary for the smooth operation of society.
Key Concepts
● Expressive vs. Instrumental Roles (Parsons & Bales) – Men traditionally take on instrumental
(breadwinner) roles, while women take on expressive (caretaking) roles.
● Regnerus & Popenoe’s Research – Examines how traditional family structures influence gender
socialization and stability.
● Critique – Overlooks how gender roles are socially constructed rather than biologically determined.
6. Evolutionary Psychology / Sociobiological Theory
(Prior Exam)
Core Idea
Gender differences are rooted in evolutionary adaptations that maximized reproductive success. This
perspective argues that behaviors developed over time to enhance survival and reproduction.
Key Concepts
● Genetic Self-Interest & Fitness – Suggests behaviors are driven by a desire to pass on genes.
● Paternal Certainty & Monogamy – Argues men evolved to value monogamy to ensure paternity,
while women seek stable partners for offspring survival.
● Grandmother Hypothesis – Explains why women live past reproductive age, arguing they help
ensure the survival of grandchildren.
● Critique – Often criticized for being biologically deterministic and ignoring cultural influences.
7. Biological / Physiological Theory (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
This theory attributes gender differences in behavior, abilities, and social roles to biological factors such as
genetics, hormones, and brain structure. It argues that innate physiological traits influence how men and
women think, act, and interact in society.
Key Concepts
5
, ● Hormonal Differences – Testosterone is linked to higher aggression and risk-taking in men, while
estrogen is associated with nurturing behaviors in women.
● Brain Structure & Lateralization – Some research suggests that male and female brains process
information differently, with men excelling in spatial reasoning and women in verbal communication.
● Parental Investment Theory – Evolutionary biology suggests that women are naturally more
selective in mate choice due to the higher reproductive costs of pregnancy and child-rearing.
● Critique – This perspective tends to reinforce gender stereotypes and often downplays the role of
socialization, culture, and structural inequality in shaping gender differences.
8. Liberal Feminism (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
Gender inequality stems from unequal opportunities and legal discrimination. The focus is on reforming
existing institutions rather than dismantling them.
Key Concepts
● Ascribed vs. Achieved Status – Gender should not determine one’s opportunities.
● Sameness/Reformist Feminists – Emphasize equality through policy changes, legal rights, and
workplace reforms.
● Critique – This approach does not address deeper structural inequalities.
9. Radical Feminism (Prior Exam)
Core Idea
Gender oppression is deeply embedded in society and must be completely dismantled. Patriarchy is seen as
the root cause of women’s subjugation.
Key Concepts
● Contrast with Liberal Feminism – Radical feminists see liberal feminism as too moderate.
● Opposition to Patriarchy – Sees male domination as a systemic issue that must be overturned.
● Critique – Overlooks race, class, and economic structures as contributing factors to gender
oppression.
10. Cultural Feminism (Prior Exam)
6
