Essentials Of Human Physiology
For Pharmacology 2025
Pharmacy Applications
Application Chapter
Homeostatic Functions Of Drugs 1
Lipid Solubility And Drug Elimination 2
Hydrophilic Drugs Bind To Receptors 2
Intravenous Solutions 2
Local Anesthetics 4
Centrally Acting Drugs 6
Antihistamines And The Blood–Brain Barrier 6
Spinal Anesthesia 7
Epidural Anesthesia 7
Alpha-One Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists 9
Sympathomimetic Drugs 9
Cholinomimetic Drugs 9
Muscarinic Receptor Antagonists 9
Therapeutic Effects Of Calcitonin 10
Therapeutic Effects Of Corticosteroids 10
Antiarrhythmic Drugs 13
Diuretics And Cardiac Output 14
Cardiac Glycosides And Cardiac Output 14
Antihypertensive Drugs 15
Nitroglycerin And Angina 15
Antiplatelet Drugs 16
Anticoagulant Drugs 16
Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome 17
Pharmacological Treatment Of Asthma 17
Drug-Induced Hypoventilation 17
Anticholinergic Side Effects In The Digestive 18
System
Drug-Induced Gastric Disease 18
Pharmacological Treatment Of Gastric Ulcers 18
Physiological Action Of Diuretics 19
Drug-Related Nephropathies 19
,Contents
Chapter 1 Physiology And The Concept Of Homeostasis ............................. 1
Study Objectives .............................................................................................
1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Homeostasis ............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Negative Feedback ...................................................................................
4 Bibliography
................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 2 Plasma Membrane .......................................................................... 7
Study Objectives .............................................................................................
7
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 7
2.2 Structure And Function Of Plasma Membrane .....................................
7
2.3 Membrane Transport .............................................................................
11
2.4 Passive Diffusion Through The Membrane .........................................
11
2.5 Osmosis .................................................................................................. 12
2.6 Mediated Transport ...............................................................................
13 Bibliography
................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 3 Membrane Potential .................................................................... 17
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
17
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 17
3.2 Development Of Resting Membrane Potential ...................................
18
Bibliography .................................................................................................
21
, Chapter 4 Electrical Signals ........................................................................... 23
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
23
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 23
4.2 Graded Potentials .................................................................................. 23
4.3 Action Potentials ................................................................................... 25
4.4 Conduction Of The Action Potential ....................................................
28 Bibliography
................................................................................................. 33
Chapter 5 Synaptic Transmission ................................................................. 35
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
35
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 35
5.2 Chemical Synapses ................................................................................ 35
5.3 Summation ............................................................................................. 38
5.4 Interconnections Between Neurons .....................................................
40
5.5 Factors Affecting Synaptic Transmission .............................................
41
Bibliography .................................................................................................
43
Chapter 6 The Nervous System ..................................................................... 45
Study Objectives ........................................................................................... 45
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 45
6.2 Classes Of Neurons ................................................................................
46
6.3 Major Levels Of Cns Function .............................................................. 47
6.4 The Brain ................................................................................................ 49
6.4.1 Cerebrum ................................................................................ 49
6.4.2 Functional Regions Of The Cerebral Cortex ..........................
51
6.4.3 Basal Ganglia .......................................................................... 55
6.4.4 Thalamus ................................................................................ 56
6.4.5 Hypothalamus ....................................................................... 56
6.4.6 Brainstem ................................................................................ 57
6.4.7 Cerebellum ............................................................................. 58
6.5 Blood–Brain Barrier .............................................................................. 60
6.6 Cerebrospinal Fluid ............................................................................... 61
, Bibliography .................................................................................................
62
Chapter 7 The Spinal Cord ............................................................................. 63
Study Objectives ........................................................................................... 63
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 63
7.2 Functions Of The Spinal Cord ................................................................
65
7.3 Composition Of The Cord ......................................................................
65
7.3.1 Gray Matter ............................................................................ 66
7.3.2 White Matter .......................................................................... 68 7.4
Spinal Reflexes ........................................................................................ 72
Bibliography .................................................................................................
75
Chapter 8 Pain ................................................................................................. 77
Study Objectives ........................................................................................... 77
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 77
8.2 Nociceptors ............................................................................................ 78
8.3 Hyperalgesia .......................................................................................... 80
8.4 Neurotransmitters Of Nociceptive Afferent Fibers .............................
81
8.5 Pain Pathway ......................................................................................... 81
8.6 Endogenous Analgesic System .............................................................
82
8.7 Cutaneous Pain ..................................................................................... 83
8.8 Deep Somatic Pain ................................................................................ 84
8.9 Visceral Pain .......................................................................................... 85
8.10 Referred Pain ....................................................................................... 85
8.11 Phantom Pain ....................................................................................... 86
8.12 Pharmacologic Treatment Of Pain .....................................................
87
Bibliography .................................................................................................
88
Chapter 9 The Autonomic Nervous System ..................................................
91
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
91
For Pharmacology 2025
Pharmacy Applications
Application Chapter
Homeostatic Functions Of Drugs 1
Lipid Solubility And Drug Elimination 2
Hydrophilic Drugs Bind To Receptors 2
Intravenous Solutions 2
Local Anesthetics 4
Centrally Acting Drugs 6
Antihistamines And The Blood–Brain Barrier 6
Spinal Anesthesia 7
Epidural Anesthesia 7
Alpha-One Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists 9
Sympathomimetic Drugs 9
Cholinomimetic Drugs 9
Muscarinic Receptor Antagonists 9
Therapeutic Effects Of Calcitonin 10
Therapeutic Effects Of Corticosteroids 10
Antiarrhythmic Drugs 13
Diuretics And Cardiac Output 14
Cardiac Glycosides And Cardiac Output 14
Antihypertensive Drugs 15
Nitroglycerin And Angina 15
Antiplatelet Drugs 16
Anticoagulant Drugs 16
Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome 17
Pharmacological Treatment Of Asthma 17
Drug-Induced Hypoventilation 17
Anticholinergic Side Effects In The Digestive 18
System
Drug-Induced Gastric Disease 18
Pharmacological Treatment Of Gastric Ulcers 18
Physiological Action Of Diuretics 19
Drug-Related Nephropathies 19
,Contents
Chapter 1 Physiology And The Concept Of Homeostasis ............................. 1
Study Objectives .............................................................................................
1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Homeostasis ............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Negative Feedback ...................................................................................
4 Bibliography
................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 2 Plasma Membrane .......................................................................... 7
Study Objectives .............................................................................................
7
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 7
2.2 Structure And Function Of Plasma Membrane .....................................
7
2.3 Membrane Transport .............................................................................
11
2.4 Passive Diffusion Through The Membrane .........................................
11
2.5 Osmosis .................................................................................................. 12
2.6 Mediated Transport ...............................................................................
13 Bibliography
................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 3 Membrane Potential .................................................................... 17
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
17
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 17
3.2 Development Of Resting Membrane Potential ...................................
18
Bibliography .................................................................................................
21
, Chapter 4 Electrical Signals ........................................................................... 23
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
23
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 23
4.2 Graded Potentials .................................................................................. 23
4.3 Action Potentials ................................................................................... 25
4.4 Conduction Of The Action Potential ....................................................
28 Bibliography
................................................................................................. 33
Chapter 5 Synaptic Transmission ................................................................. 35
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
35
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 35
5.2 Chemical Synapses ................................................................................ 35
5.3 Summation ............................................................................................. 38
5.4 Interconnections Between Neurons .....................................................
40
5.5 Factors Affecting Synaptic Transmission .............................................
41
Bibliography .................................................................................................
43
Chapter 6 The Nervous System ..................................................................... 45
Study Objectives ........................................................................................... 45
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 45
6.2 Classes Of Neurons ................................................................................
46
6.3 Major Levels Of Cns Function .............................................................. 47
6.4 The Brain ................................................................................................ 49
6.4.1 Cerebrum ................................................................................ 49
6.4.2 Functional Regions Of The Cerebral Cortex ..........................
51
6.4.3 Basal Ganglia .......................................................................... 55
6.4.4 Thalamus ................................................................................ 56
6.4.5 Hypothalamus ....................................................................... 56
6.4.6 Brainstem ................................................................................ 57
6.4.7 Cerebellum ............................................................................. 58
6.5 Blood–Brain Barrier .............................................................................. 60
6.6 Cerebrospinal Fluid ............................................................................... 61
, Bibliography .................................................................................................
62
Chapter 7 The Spinal Cord ............................................................................. 63
Study Objectives ........................................................................................... 63
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 63
7.2 Functions Of The Spinal Cord ................................................................
65
7.3 Composition Of The Cord ......................................................................
65
7.3.1 Gray Matter ............................................................................ 66
7.3.2 White Matter .......................................................................... 68 7.4
Spinal Reflexes ........................................................................................ 72
Bibliography .................................................................................................
75
Chapter 8 Pain ................................................................................................. 77
Study Objectives ........................................................................................... 77
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 77
8.2 Nociceptors ............................................................................................ 78
8.3 Hyperalgesia .......................................................................................... 80
8.4 Neurotransmitters Of Nociceptive Afferent Fibers .............................
81
8.5 Pain Pathway ......................................................................................... 81
8.6 Endogenous Analgesic System .............................................................
82
8.7 Cutaneous Pain ..................................................................................... 83
8.8 Deep Somatic Pain ................................................................................ 84
8.9 Visceral Pain .......................................................................................... 85
8.10 Referred Pain ....................................................................................... 85
8.11 Phantom Pain ....................................................................................... 86
8.12 Pharmacologic Treatment Of Pain .....................................................
87
Bibliography .................................................................................................
88
Chapter 9 The Autonomic Nervous System ..................................................
91
Study Objectives ...........................................................................................
91
