NSC 1306] Cumulative Final Exam ALL SOLUTION AND ANSWERS CORRECT 2025 EDITION GUARANTEED GRADE A+

[NSC 1306] Cumulative Final Exam ALL SOLUTION AND ANSWERS CORRECT 2025 EDITION GUARANTEED GRADE A+ Comparative Approach comparison of the similarities and differences among species to gain understanding of evolutionary relationships Functional Approach focus on the function of the mental processes involving consciousness Neurons cells that receive and transmit electrochemical signals Neuroplasticity notion that the brain in a moldable organ that continues to grow and change throughout a person's life via experiences and environment Epigenetics study of the mechanisms of inheritance excluding genetic code and its expressions Consciousness the perception or awareness of some aspect of one's self/world Creative Thinking thinking in productive and unconventional ways Critical process of recognizing weaknesses of existing ideas and the evidence upon which they are based Neuroscience the scientific study of the nervous system Neuroanatomy the study of the relationship between structure and function in the nervous system Neurophysiology the study of how the normal functions of the nervous system Neurochemistry study of nervous system neurochemicals and their functions Neuroendocrinology studies how the brain regulates hormonal activity in the body Neuropharmacology studies how different medications affect the human nervous system Neuropathology branch of medicine that studies diseases of the nervous system Molecular Analysis how changes in molecules (chemicals) effect larger changes in structure and function Molar Analysis analysis of behavior on the smallest level of observation possible Scientific Interference observation of the consequences of unobservable processes to then infer the nature of these processes Korsakoff's Syndrome a neuropsychological syndrome that is common in alcoholics but caused by brain damage associated with thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency Alleles two genes that control the same trait Analogous structures that are similar but have no common evolutionary origin Asomatognosia deficiency in the awareness of parts of one's own body Chordates animals with large nerves that runs along the center of the back/dorsum Chromosomes (Autosomal) threadlike structures found within the nucleus of each cell Conspecifics Members of the same species Convergent Evolution evolution in unrelated species of similar solutions to the same environmental demands Convolutions brain wrinkle Dichotomous Traits traits that occur in one form or the other, NEVER in combination Ethology the study of animal behavior in the wild Exaptation characteristics that evolved to serve one function and later served another Gametes eggs and sperm cells Gene a unit of inheritance Genetic Recombination process by which pairs of chromosomes cross over one another at random points, break apart, and exchange genes Genotype traits that an organism can pass to its offspring through its genetic material Heterozygous organisms that possess different alleles for a specific trait Homologous structures that are similar because they have a common evolutionary origin Homozygous organisms that possess two identical alleles for a specific trait Instinctive Behaviors occur in all like members of a species; even when there SEEMS to be no evidence that they have been learned/taught Meiosis process of cell division that produces cells with half the chromosomes of the parent cell Mitosis process of all other cell division in the body Ontogeny development of individuals over their lifespan Phylogeny evolutionary development of species through the ages Phenotype organisms observable traits Phenylketonuria birth defect that causes phenylalanine (amino acid) to build up in the body Species group of organisms reproductively isolated from other organisms Spandrels incidental nonadaptive evolutionary by-products Transgenerational Epigenetics subfield of epigenetics that examines the transmission of experiences via epigenetic mechanisms across generations True-Breeding Lines breeding lines in which interbred members always produce offspring with the same trait, generation after generation Zygote fertilized egg cell Sympathetic Nerves autonomic motor nerves that project from the spinal cord in the lower (lumber) back and chest (thoracic) regions. Parasympathetic Nerves autonomic motor nerves that project from the brain and lower back (sacral) regions of the spinal cord Central Nervous System nervous system located within the skull and spine Peripheral Nervous System nervous system located outside of the skull and spine Somatic Nervous System part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment through the afferent and efferent nerves Autonomic Nervous System regulates the body's internal environment Central Canal small central channel that runs the length of the spinal cord Cerebral ventricles are the four large internal chambers of the brain Cerebrospinal Fluid supports and cushions the brain Choroid plexuses networks of capillaries, or small blood vessels that protrude into the ventricles from the pia mater Blood-Brain Barrier a mechanism that impedes the passage of many toxic substances from the blood into the brain. Due to blood vessel walls in the brain being so tightly packed, that they a barrier to the passage of many molecules Neurons cells that are specialized for reception, conduction, transmission of electrochemical signals Cell Body/Soma metabolic center of the neuron Cell Membrane semipermeable membrane that encloses the neuron Dendrites short processes emanating from the cell body. Receive most of the synaptic contacts from other neurons Axon Hillock cone shaped region at the junction between the axon and the cell body Axon long and narrow process that projects from the cell body Myelin fatty insulation around many axons Nodes of Ranvier gaps between sections of myelin Synapse The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a muscle or gland cell, over which nerve impulses pass. Nuclei(CNS) / Ganglia(PNS) clusters of cell bodies Tracts(CNS) / Nerves(PNS) bundles of axons Golgi Stain neural stain that completely darkens a few of the neurons on each slice of tissue making their silhouettes visible Nissl Stain neural stain that has an affinity for structures in the neural stained body Electron Microscopy technique that provides information about the details of neuronal structure and will reveal the fine anatomical details of neurons Anterograde Tracing Methods traces the paths of axons projecting away from cell bodies located in a particular area Retrograde Tracing Methods trace the paths of axons projecting into a particular area Anterior (rostral) toward the nose end Posterior (caudal) toward the tail end Dorsal toward the surface of the back or top of the head Ventral towards the surface of the chest or bottom of the head Medial towards the midline of the body Lateral away from the midline of the body Superior top Inferior bottom Proximal close (to the CNS) Distal far (from the CNS) Sagittal any slices that are parallel to the sides of the brain Midsagittal Section section cut down the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres. Horizontal any slices that a parallel to the top of the brain Frontal/Coronal any slices that are parallel to the face Cross Section section cut at a right angle to any long, narrow structure, such as the spinal cord or a nerve Brain Stem the stem on which the cerebral hemispheres sit Reticular Formation complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that occupies the central core of the brain stem from the posterior boundary of the myelencephalon to the anterior boundary of the midbrain Tectum "roof" dorsal surface of the midbrain Inferior Colliculi (posterior pair) have an auditory function. Superior Colliculi (anterior pair) have a visual-motor function to direct the body's orientation toward or away from particular visual stimuli Tegmentum ventral to the tectum Periaqueductal Gray gray matter situated around the cerebral aqueduct Cerebral Aqueduct connects the third and fourth ventricles. Has a role in mediating the analgesic (pain-reducing) effects of opioid drugs. Substantia Nigra (black substance) midbrain nucleus whose neurons project via the nigrostriatal pathway to the stratum of the basal ganglia. Part of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system. Crucial to the sensorimotor system Red Nucleus structure of the sensorimotor system Pons bugle on the brain stems ventral surface Cerebellum (little brain) large, convoluted structure on the brain stem's dorsal surface. It is an important sensorimotor structure; cerebellar damage eliminates the ability to precisely control one's movements and to adapt them to changing conditions Mesencephalon (or midbrain) section of the brain that is composed of the tectum and tegmentum Metencephalon section of the brain that houses part of the reticular formation and create the pons Myelencephalon (medulla) most posterior section of the brain and is composed mostly of reticular formation tracts that carry signals between the rest of the brain and the body Diencephalon composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus Massa Intermedia neural structure located in third ventricle that connects the lobes of the thalamus Sensory Relay Nuclei receive signals from sensory receptors, process them, and then transmit them to the appropriate areas of sensory cortex Lateral Geniculate Nuclei receive input from the retinas and transmit their output to the primary visual cortex Medial Geniculate Nuclei auditory thalamic nuclei that receive input from the inferior colliculi and project to the primary auditory cortex Hypothalamus located below the anterior thalamus. Plays an important role in the regulation in several motivated behaviors (eating, sleeping, sex, etc.) and regulates hormone release from the pituitary gland Pituitary Gland gland that dangles from and is controlled by the hypothalamus Optic Chiasm point at which the optic nerves come together and decussate/cross over to the opposite side of the brain Decussating Fibers are contralateral (project from one side of the body to the other) Nondecussating Fibers are ipsilateral (stay of the same side of the body) Mammillary Bodies spherical nuclei located on the inferior surface of the hypothalamus behind the pituitary gland. Telencephalon Largest division of the human brain that mediates the brain's most complex function(Initiates voluntary movement, interprets sensory input, and mediates complex cognitive processes such as learning, speaking, and problem solving) Cerebral Cortex (cerebral bark) layer of tissue covering the cerebral hemispheres that is mainly composed of small, unmyelinated neurons often referred to as the gray matter Fissures large furrows in a convoluted cortex Sulci/Sulcus small fissures Gyri ridges found between fissures and sulci Cerebral Commissures hemisphere-connecting tracts Frontal Lobe most anterior lobe Parietal Lobe lobe located posterior to the central fissure Temporal Lobe lobe that is adjacent to the temples and connects the hippocampus and amygdala Occipital Lobe most posterior lobe that's function is primarily visual Longitudinal Fissure largest fissure that separates the two hemispheres Corpus Callosum largest cerebral commissure Central Fissure separates the frontal and parietal lobes Lateral Fissure separates the temporal and frontal lobes Precentral Gyri located anterior to the central fissure; motor function Postcentral Gyri posterior to the central fissure; somatosensory (physical sensations) Superior Temporal Gyri (plural) topmost aspect of the temporal lobe; auditory processing and social cognition Amygdala almond shaped nucleus in the anterior temporal lobe that is involved in emotion and fear in particular Cingulate Cortex large strip in the cingulate gyrus on the medial surface of the cerebral hemispheres that encircles the dorsal thalamus Septum midline nucleus at the anterior tip of the cingulate cortex Fornix major tract of the limbic system that encircles the dorsal thalamus Caudate tail like structure Putamen structure that is joined to the caudate by a series of fiber bridges Striatum ("striped structure") combination of the caudate and the putamen Globus Pallidus ("pale globe") structure of the basal ganglia that is located between the putamen and thalamus Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) produce proteins for the rest of the cell to function Nucleus Carries genetic information and controls what happens inside the cell Cytoplasm where chemical reactions happen Ribosomes site of protein synthesis Golgi Complex involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell. Mitochondria Where most respiration (energy) reactions happen Microtubules provide components of the cytoskeleton that gives shape to cells and regulates cell growth Synaptic Vesicles play the central role of synaptic transmission through the uptake, storage and the (stimulus-dependent) release of neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters used by the nervous system to transmit messages between neurons, or from neurons to muscles. Reptilian Stare characteristic lack of blinking and widely opened eyes gazing out of a motionless face Membrane Potential difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a cell Parkinson's Disease Progressive CNS disorder that affects movement, caused by the loss or deterioration of the substantia nigra ("black substance") How is membrane potential recorded? position the tip of one electrode within the neuron and the tip of another outside the neuron in the extracellular fluid Microelectrodes extremely fine electrodes used for intracellular recording Polarized Neuron has a membrane potential that is not zero What is the membrane potential when both electrodes are in the extracellular fluid? MP=0 What is the membrane potential when intracellular electrode is inserted into an at rest neuron(not receiving signals from other cells)? MP= -70 millivolts (mV) Ions positively and negatively charged particles Sodium Ion Na+ Potassium Ion CONTINUED...