IAL Psychology: paper 1
Psychology Paper 1
Social and Cognitive Psychology
Agency Theory...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Milgram’s Agency Theory................................................................................................................................ 3
Social power theory...............................................................................................................................................3
French & Raven’s (1959) Theory of five bases of social power................................................................ 3
Milgram’s 1963 studies..........................................................................................................................................4
Ethical issues.............................................................................................................................................4
Milgram’s observations..............................................................................................................................4
Factors affecting obedience.................................................................................................................................. 7
Situational........................................................................................................................................................7
Personality.......................................................................................................................................................7
Gender............................................................................................................................................................ 7
Culture.............................................................................................................................................................7
Dissent or resistance to obedience................................................................................................................. 7
Types of conformity............................................................................................................................................... 8
Explanations for conformity................................................................................................................................... 8
Asch (1951)..................................................................................................................................................... 8
1952 variation............................................................................................................................................ 9
1956 variation............................................................................................................................................ 9
Minority influence.................................................................................................................................................. 9
Moscovici 1976..............................................................................................................................................10
Factors affecting conformity and minority influence............................................................................................ 10
Situational factors..........................................................................................................................................10
Individual differences.....................................................................................................................................10
Culture...........................................................................................................................................................10
Self-reporting data............................................................................................................................................... 11
Questionnaires.............................................................................................................................................. 11
Primary & secondary data............................................................................................................................. 11
Interviews...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Alternative Hypotheses..................................................................................................................................11
Sample selection and sampling techniques........................................................................................................ 11
Quantitative data................................................................................................................................................. 11
Analysis of quantitative data.......................................................................................................................... 11
Measures of central tendency....................................................................................................................... 11
Data tables.................................................................................................................................................... 11
Measures of dispersions................................................................................................................................11
Analysis of qualitative data (List A)......................................................................................................................11
Thematic analysis.......................................................................................................................................... 11
Ethical guidelines.................................................................................................................................................11
BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct..................................................................................................................11
Classic Study.......................................................................................................................................................11
1
,IAL Psychology: paper 1
Serge Moscovici et al. (1969)........................................................................................................................ 11
Contemporary studies......................................................................................................................................... 12
Burger (2009)................................................................................................................................................ 12
Yi Huang et al. (2014)....................................................................................................................................13
2.1 Models & Theories of memory................................................................................................................... 15
Encoding....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Storage..........................................................................................................................................................15
Retrieval........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Multi-store model.................................................................................................................................................15
Working memory model...................................................................................................................................... 16
Reconstructive memory.......................................................................................................................................16
The experimental methods..................................................................................................................................17
Laboratory experiments.................................................................................................................................17
Field experiments.......................................................................................................................................... 17
Hypotheses......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Variables..............................................................................................................................................................17
Experimental and research designs.................................................................................................................... 17
Operationalizing variables................................................................................................................................... 17
Objectivity, reliability, and validity........................................................................................................................ 17
Experimenter effects........................................................................................................................................... 17
Inferential statistics (List B)................................................................................................................................. 17
Classic study....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Bartlett (1932)................................................................................................................................................17
Contemporary studies......................................................................................................................................... 18
Schmolck et al. (2002)...................................................................................................................................18
Sacchi et al. (2007)....................................................................................................................................... 20
2
, IAL Psychology: paper 1
1. Social psychology
Definition:
- Examines effects of environment on behaviour & how actions are influenced by individuals, groups, and
culture (less emphasis on psychological determinants of behaviour: cognition & biology)
- Thought and feelings strongly influenced by social setting: behave in ways perceived as consistent with
the social setting
- Surveys & field experiments used to investigate impact
- Carried out in real-life settings, universally applicable
1.1 Obedience
- Form of social influence
- An individual acts in response to a direct order from another individual (usually an authority figure)
- It is assumed that without such order ⇾ person would not have acted in that way
- Involves a hierarchy of power/ status
- Person giving order has a higher status than person receiving order
Agency Theory
Milgram’s Agency Theory
- Obedience is necessary for stability of human society, socialized into obedience from childhood
Suggests two states:
1. Agentic
- obey in Agentic state: give up free will to follow orders of others in authority, i.e. become their
‘agents’, e.g. soldiers: expected to obey coercive orders
- Milgram: in order for a person to enter agentic state: order must be perceived as given by a
legitimate authority who will accept responsibility for what happens
- Moral strain: web of obligation, i.e. pressure of doing something against one’s own moral code
2. Autonomous
- Definition: we are freethinking and able to make our own decisions for which we are fully
responsible
- Children learn to obey their parents and teachers → act as agents following social rules
↳ trained to obey employers and others in authority as we get older
- People tend to obey recognized authority figures to maintain a stable society
- To avoid chaos and disorder: give up some of our free will to follow rules
Evaluation of AT
Strengths:
- Backs Milgram’s findings; the less they were agents of authority (e.g. experimenter in the room) → the
less they obeyed
- Helps to explain real-life behaviour (e.g. Holocaust)
Weaknesses:
- Social power is an alternative explanation (expert power, legitimate power)
- Not specifically an explanation as they obey authority figure → meaning of obedience
- Social desirability: form of bias = doing/ saying something we think we have to say/ do in given situation
Social power theory
French & Raven’s (1959) Theory of five bases of social power
1. Reward power: based on perceived ability to give positive consequences/ remove negative ones
2. Coercive power: based on perceived ability to punish those not conforming to your ideas/ demands
3. Legitimate power: Organizational authority ⇾ based on perception that someone has right to prescribe
behaviour due to election / appointment to position of responsibility
4. Referent power: through association with others who possess power
5. Expert power: based on having distinctive knowledge, expertness, ability, or skill
3
Psychology Paper 1
Social and Cognitive Psychology
Agency Theory...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Milgram’s Agency Theory................................................................................................................................ 3
Social power theory...............................................................................................................................................3
French & Raven’s (1959) Theory of five bases of social power................................................................ 3
Milgram’s 1963 studies..........................................................................................................................................4
Ethical issues.............................................................................................................................................4
Milgram’s observations..............................................................................................................................4
Factors affecting obedience.................................................................................................................................. 7
Situational........................................................................................................................................................7
Personality.......................................................................................................................................................7
Gender............................................................................................................................................................ 7
Culture.............................................................................................................................................................7
Dissent or resistance to obedience................................................................................................................. 7
Types of conformity............................................................................................................................................... 8
Explanations for conformity................................................................................................................................... 8
Asch (1951)..................................................................................................................................................... 8
1952 variation............................................................................................................................................ 9
1956 variation............................................................................................................................................ 9
Minority influence.................................................................................................................................................. 9
Moscovici 1976..............................................................................................................................................10
Factors affecting conformity and minority influence............................................................................................ 10
Situational factors..........................................................................................................................................10
Individual differences.....................................................................................................................................10
Culture...........................................................................................................................................................10
Self-reporting data............................................................................................................................................... 11
Questionnaires.............................................................................................................................................. 11
Primary & secondary data............................................................................................................................. 11
Interviews...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Alternative Hypotheses..................................................................................................................................11
Sample selection and sampling techniques........................................................................................................ 11
Quantitative data................................................................................................................................................. 11
Analysis of quantitative data.......................................................................................................................... 11
Measures of central tendency....................................................................................................................... 11
Data tables.................................................................................................................................................... 11
Measures of dispersions................................................................................................................................11
Analysis of qualitative data (List A)......................................................................................................................11
Thematic analysis.......................................................................................................................................... 11
Ethical guidelines.................................................................................................................................................11
BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct..................................................................................................................11
Classic Study.......................................................................................................................................................11
1
,IAL Psychology: paper 1
Serge Moscovici et al. (1969)........................................................................................................................ 11
Contemporary studies......................................................................................................................................... 12
Burger (2009)................................................................................................................................................ 12
Yi Huang et al. (2014)....................................................................................................................................13
2.1 Models & Theories of memory................................................................................................................... 15
Encoding....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Storage..........................................................................................................................................................15
Retrieval........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Multi-store model.................................................................................................................................................15
Working memory model...................................................................................................................................... 16
Reconstructive memory.......................................................................................................................................16
The experimental methods..................................................................................................................................17
Laboratory experiments.................................................................................................................................17
Field experiments.......................................................................................................................................... 17
Hypotheses......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Variables..............................................................................................................................................................17
Experimental and research designs.................................................................................................................... 17
Operationalizing variables................................................................................................................................... 17
Objectivity, reliability, and validity........................................................................................................................ 17
Experimenter effects........................................................................................................................................... 17
Inferential statistics (List B)................................................................................................................................. 17
Classic study....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Bartlett (1932)................................................................................................................................................17
Contemporary studies......................................................................................................................................... 18
Schmolck et al. (2002)...................................................................................................................................18
Sacchi et al. (2007)....................................................................................................................................... 20
2
, IAL Psychology: paper 1
1. Social psychology
Definition:
- Examines effects of environment on behaviour & how actions are influenced by individuals, groups, and
culture (less emphasis on psychological determinants of behaviour: cognition & biology)
- Thought and feelings strongly influenced by social setting: behave in ways perceived as consistent with
the social setting
- Surveys & field experiments used to investigate impact
- Carried out in real-life settings, universally applicable
1.1 Obedience
- Form of social influence
- An individual acts in response to a direct order from another individual (usually an authority figure)
- It is assumed that without such order ⇾ person would not have acted in that way
- Involves a hierarchy of power/ status
- Person giving order has a higher status than person receiving order
Agency Theory
Milgram’s Agency Theory
- Obedience is necessary for stability of human society, socialized into obedience from childhood
Suggests two states:
1. Agentic
- obey in Agentic state: give up free will to follow orders of others in authority, i.e. become their
‘agents’, e.g. soldiers: expected to obey coercive orders
- Milgram: in order for a person to enter agentic state: order must be perceived as given by a
legitimate authority who will accept responsibility for what happens
- Moral strain: web of obligation, i.e. pressure of doing something against one’s own moral code
2. Autonomous
- Definition: we are freethinking and able to make our own decisions for which we are fully
responsible
- Children learn to obey their parents and teachers → act as agents following social rules
↳ trained to obey employers and others in authority as we get older
- People tend to obey recognized authority figures to maintain a stable society
- To avoid chaos and disorder: give up some of our free will to follow rules
Evaluation of AT
Strengths:
- Backs Milgram’s findings; the less they were agents of authority (e.g. experimenter in the room) → the
less they obeyed
- Helps to explain real-life behaviour (e.g. Holocaust)
Weaknesses:
- Social power is an alternative explanation (expert power, legitimate power)
- Not specifically an explanation as they obey authority figure → meaning of obedience
- Social desirability: form of bias = doing/ saying something we think we have to say/ do in given situation
Social power theory
French & Raven’s (1959) Theory of five bases of social power
1. Reward power: based on perceived ability to give positive consequences/ remove negative ones
2. Coercive power: based on perceived ability to punish those not conforming to your ideas/ demands
3. Legitimate power: Organizational authority ⇾ based on perception that someone has right to prescribe
behaviour due to election / appointment to position of responsibility
4. Referent power: through association with others who possess power
5. Expert power: based on having distinctive knowledge, expertness, ability, or skill
3
