AP Chemistry Exam Review
Activation Energy - ANS - The amount of energy required to reach the transition
state, the highest point on the graph. At this point, all reactant bonds have been
broken, but no product bonds have been formed, so this is the point in the
reaction with the highest energy and lowest stability.
\Amorphous Solid - ANS - Solids whose particles have no orderly pattern.
\Anode - ANS - Where oxidation occurs and the solution is becoming more
positively charged, the negative anions from the salt bridge solution flow into the
half-cell.
\atomic number - ANS - The same as the number of protons in the nucleus of an
element; it is also the same as the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus
of an element when it is neutrally charged.
\Atomic Radius Trends - ANS - Atomic radius decreases across a period
Atomic radius increases down a group
Cations are smaller than their atoms
Ions are larger than their atoms
\Aufbau principle - ANS - States that when building up the electron configuration
of an atom, electrons are placed in orbitals, subshells, and shells in order of
increasing energy.
\Avogadro's number - ANS - 6.022×10²³ particles per one mole
\Bent Geometry - ANS - - Central atom has four electron pairs
- two lone pair
- sp³ hybridization
- 109.5° bond angle
- Ex. H₂O, OF₂, NH₂⁻
\Bent Geometry - ANS - - Central atom with three electron pairs
- One lone pair
- sp² hybridization
,- 120° bond angle
- Ex. SO₂
\Bond Energy - ANS - The energy required to break a bond.
Because the breaking of a bond is an endothermic process, bond energy is
always a positive number.
When a bond is formed, energy equal to the bond is released.
ΔH° = Bond energies of bonds broken - bond energies of bonds formed
ΔH° = reactants - products
\Boyle's Law (If temperature is constant) - ANS - As pressure increases, volume
decreases, and vice versa
\Buffer Solution - ANS - A solution consisting of a weak acid plus its conjugate
base or a weak base plus its conjugate acid.
This solution resists changes to its pH
\Catalysts - ANS - Speed up a reaction by providing the reactants with an
alternate pathway that has a lower activation energy.
A catalyst lowers the activation energy, but it has no effect on the energy of the
reactants, the energy of the products, or the ΔH of the reaction.
\Cathode - ANS - Where reduction occurs and the solution is becoming less
positively charged, the positive cations from the salt bridge solution flow into the
half-cell.
\Changes in the Equilibrium Constant - ANS - Shifts caused by concentration or
pressure changes or temporary shifts, and do not change the value of the
equilibrium constant itself.
Because changing temperature also affects reaction kinetics by adding (or
removing) energy from the equilibrium system, a change in temperature will also
affect the equilibrium constant for the reaction itself, in addition to causing a
shift.
\Charles' Law (If pressure is constant) - ANS - As temperature increases, volume
increases
\Common Ion Effect - ANS - States that newly added ions will affect the
equilibrium of a substance.
, \Comparing Q and K - ANS -
\Converting from moles to liters - ANS - I mole of gas = 22.4 L
\Coulomb's Law - ANS - The amount of energy that an electron has depends on
its distance from nucleus of an atom. While on the exam, you will not be required
to mathematically calculate the amount of energy a given electron has, you
should be able to qualitatively apply Coulomb's Law.
Essentially, the greater the charge of the nucleus, the more energy an electron
will have.
\Covalent bonding - ANS - Bonding in which two atoms share electrons. Each
atom counts the shared electrons as part of its valence shell to achieve complete
outer shells.
The first covalent bond formed between two atoms is called a sigma bond.
\Crystalline Solids - ANS - Solid that has its atoms arranged in an orderly way.
\Dalton's Law - ANS - Ptotal = Pa + Pb + Pc + ...
\Density - ANS - D = m/v
\Deviations From Ideal Behavior - ANS - At low temperature and/or high pressure,
gases behave in a less-than-ideal manner. This is because the assumptions made
in the kinetic molecular theory become invalid.
\Different types of bonds and their relative melting and boiling points (from
highest to lowest) - ANS - 1. Network Covalent Bonds
2. Ionic Bonds (based on Coulombic attraction)
a. Greater Ion Charge
b. Smaller Atom Size
3. Covalent Bonds (based on molecular polarity)
a. Hydrogen Bonds
b. Non-Hydrogen Bond Dipoles
c. London Dispersion Forces (temporary dipoles)
i. Large molecules are more polarizable because they have more electrons.
\Dipole-Dipole Forces - ANS - Forces that occur when the positive end of one
polar molecule is attracted to the negative end of another polar molecule.
Molecules with greater polarity have higher melting and boiling points.
Dipole-dipole attractions, however, are relatively weak, and these substances
melt and boil at very low temperatures.
\Double Bond - ANS - Bond designation: One sigma and one pi
Activation Energy - ANS - The amount of energy required to reach the transition
state, the highest point on the graph. At this point, all reactant bonds have been
broken, but no product bonds have been formed, so this is the point in the
reaction with the highest energy and lowest stability.
\Amorphous Solid - ANS - Solids whose particles have no orderly pattern.
\Anode - ANS - Where oxidation occurs and the solution is becoming more
positively charged, the negative anions from the salt bridge solution flow into the
half-cell.
\atomic number - ANS - The same as the number of protons in the nucleus of an
element; it is also the same as the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus
of an element when it is neutrally charged.
\Atomic Radius Trends - ANS - Atomic radius decreases across a period
Atomic radius increases down a group
Cations are smaller than their atoms
Ions are larger than their atoms
\Aufbau principle - ANS - States that when building up the electron configuration
of an atom, electrons are placed in orbitals, subshells, and shells in order of
increasing energy.
\Avogadro's number - ANS - 6.022×10²³ particles per one mole
\Bent Geometry - ANS - - Central atom has four electron pairs
- two lone pair
- sp³ hybridization
- 109.5° bond angle
- Ex. H₂O, OF₂, NH₂⁻
\Bent Geometry - ANS - - Central atom with three electron pairs
- One lone pair
- sp² hybridization
,- 120° bond angle
- Ex. SO₂
\Bond Energy - ANS - The energy required to break a bond.
Because the breaking of a bond is an endothermic process, bond energy is
always a positive number.
When a bond is formed, energy equal to the bond is released.
ΔH° = Bond energies of bonds broken - bond energies of bonds formed
ΔH° = reactants - products
\Boyle's Law (If temperature is constant) - ANS - As pressure increases, volume
decreases, and vice versa
\Buffer Solution - ANS - A solution consisting of a weak acid plus its conjugate
base or a weak base plus its conjugate acid.
This solution resists changes to its pH
\Catalysts - ANS - Speed up a reaction by providing the reactants with an
alternate pathway that has a lower activation energy.
A catalyst lowers the activation energy, but it has no effect on the energy of the
reactants, the energy of the products, or the ΔH of the reaction.
\Cathode - ANS - Where reduction occurs and the solution is becoming less
positively charged, the positive cations from the salt bridge solution flow into the
half-cell.
\Changes in the Equilibrium Constant - ANS - Shifts caused by concentration or
pressure changes or temporary shifts, and do not change the value of the
equilibrium constant itself.
Because changing temperature also affects reaction kinetics by adding (or
removing) energy from the equilibrium system, a change in temperature will also
affect the equilibrium constant for the reaction itself, in addition to causing a
shift.
\Charles' Law (If pressure is constant) - ANS - As temperature increases, volume
increases
\Common Ion Effect - ANS - States that newly added ions will affect the
equilibrium of a substance.
, \Comparing Q and K - ANS -
\Converting from moles to liters - ANS - I mole of gas = 22.4 L
\Coulomb's Law - ANS - The amount of energy that an electron has depends on
its distance from nucleus of an atom. While on the exam, you will not be required
to mathematically calculate the amount of energy a given electron has, you
should be able to qualitatively apply Coulomb's Law.
Essentially, the greater the charge of the nucleus, the more energy an electron
will have.
\Covalent bonding - ANS - Bonding in which two atoms share electrons. Each
atom counts the shared electrons as part of its valence shell to achieve complete
outer shells.
The first covalent bond formed between two atoms is called a sigma bond.
\Crystalline Solids - ANS - Solid that has its atoms arranged in an orderly way.
\Dalton's Law - ANS - Ptotal = Pa + Pb + Pc + ...
\Density - ANS - D = m/v
\Deviations From Ideal Behavior - ANS - At low temperature and/or high pressure,
gases behave in a less-than-ideal manner. This is because the assumptions made
in the kinetic molecular theory become invalid.
\Different types of bonds and their relative melting and boiling points (from
highest to lowest) - ANS - 1. Network Covalent Bonds
2. Ionic Bonds (based on Coulombic attraction)
a. Greater Ion Charge
b. Smaller Atom Size
3. Covalent Bonds (based on molecular polarity)
a. Hydrogen Bonds
b. Non-Hydrogen Bond Dipoles
c. London Dispersion Forces (temporary dipoles)
i. Large molecules are more polarizable because they have more electrons.
\Dipole-Dipole Forces - ANS - Forces that occur when the positive end of one
polar molecule is attracted to the negative end of another polar molecule.
Molecules with greater polarity have higher melting and boiling points.
Dipole-dipole attractions, however, are relatively weak, and these substances
melt and boil at very low temperatures.
\Double Bond - ANS - Bond designation: One sigma and one pi
