Psychopathology
Definitions of abnormality
Tied to culture and context. Culture refers to values, attitudes, beliefs, and practises.
Includes roles and norms and values. Norms are expected and accepted patterns of
behaviour e.g., being quiet in a doctor.
- Statistical infrequency
Deviation of statistical norms. This definition argues that behaviours that are statistically
rare i.e., minority numerically seen as abnormal. what is described as statistically rare
depends on normal distribution, any outside regarded as being abnormal. Most people will
be around the mean for the behaviour in question with most declining away from the mean.
Advantages – clearly appropriate for mental illness e.g., schizophrenia (1%) allowing
objective argument
Disadvantages – not all infrequent behaviours are abnormal e.g., intelligence. Not all
abnormal behaviours are infrequent, 20% clinical depression.
- Deviation from ideal mental health
Refers to the ideal psychological well-being. Marie Jahoda identified factors necessary for
mental well-being. These are: positive view of self, personal growth and developing,
autonomy, accurate view of reality, positive relationships, environmental mastery.
- Deviation from social norms
Deviation is a violation of accepted and expected behaviours e.g., self-starvation of a person
with anorexia violates norms of eating.
Advantage – indicator that there might be psychological problems
Disadvantage – may not indicate a psychological problem, one example does need help e.g.,
self-starvation however an abnormal hairstyle does not need help. Norms change within
cultures, differences in behaviour are regarded okay. Culture bound; norms vary between
cultures.
- Failure to function adequately
Means that a person is unable to lead a normal life e.g., work, relationship. When a
particular behaviour interferes with everyday life then it might be regarded as abnormal.
7 types of abnormality identified by Rosenham and Seligman. Pneumonic, stupid men vomit
up ink or vodka. Suffering, maladaptiveness, vividness, unpredictability, irrational, observer
discomfort, violation of moral standards.
Advantages – provides a criteria for psychiatrists for diagnosis
, Disadvantages – no clear cut off for each feature, subjective, no measuring devices, culture
bound or ethnocentric, normal might not be the same in each culture.
Phobias (behavioural)
Phobias are strong, persistent, irrational fear and desire to avoid an object, activity, or
situation, interferes with everyday behaviour. Seligman and Rosenham – features of
abnormality. Phobias often acknowledge that the anxiety is out of proportion to the actual
danger posed, doesn’t help reduce the anxiety/fear. There are three categories:
agoraphobia (open spaces), social phobia (social or performance fear), specific phobia
(object/thing). Patients report embarrassment or humiliation. Symptoms include panic,
dread, rapid heartbeat, terror, trembling etc.
Emotional characteristics – excessive, unreasonable fear, anxiety, and panic. Triggered by
presence or anticipation of specific object or situation. Excessive in relation to danger posed.
Cognitive characteristics – the cognitive divided into two, selective attention and irrational
beliefs. Selective attention – fixated on object feared. Irrational fear – e.g., all spiders are
dangerous.
Behavioural characteristics – avoidance and panic, e.g., avoid spiders. Face to face with said
thing was results in panic, stress, and anxiety.
- Explanations, two process model, diathesis stress, preparedness
Behavioural approach to explaining phobias, psychological approach, learned from the
environment. This includes classical (making association with a reflex) and operant
conditioning (learning via reinforcement).
Mowrer combined classical and operant to make the two-process model. CC explains how a
phobia is formed, OC how it is maintained.
Classical conditioning – the case of little Albert. In cc a phobia is learned through association
between a stimulus and a reflex. Paired loud bag with white rat, the fear is generalised.
Operant conditioning – phobia is maintained by reinforcement, strengthens a response.
Once a fear is formed, associated by fear/anxiety. Phobia is maintained by avoiding feared
object/activity. Avoids produces the fear and anxiety, produces relief. The relief is negative
reinforcement, escapes or avoid learning.
Evaluation of the two-process model by Mowrer-
Powerful model for explaining the origin and maintenance, highly scientific research, tests
under controlled conditions. Experiment by Pavlov and Skinner. Structured standardised
procedures. The model has practical applications, evidence the turtle and the egg. Evidence
is support from research on humans, many recall a specific vent when fear began, not
always. However not every incident leads to a fear. Diathesis stress model – genetic
predisposition, ‘stress’ is trigger in the environment, in this ay some people have a diathesis
to develop mental disorders, triggered by life event. Alternative theories, an alternative
theory is the evolutionary theory. Suggest that biologically prepared to fear some stimuli
e.g., snakes, heights, and strangers.
- Treatments, systematic desensitisation, flooding
2
Definitions of abnormality
Tied to culture and context. Culture refers to values, attitudes, beliefs, and practises.
Includes roles and norms and values. Norms are expected and accepted patterns of
behaviour e.g., being quiet in a doctor.
- Statistical infrequency
Deviation of statistical norms. This definition argues that behaviours that are statistically
rare i.e., minority numerically seen as abnormal. what is described as statistically rare
depends on normal distribution, any outside regarded as being abnormal. Most people will
be around the mean for the behaviour in question with most declining away from the mean.
Advantages – clearly appropriate for mental illness e.g., schizophrenia (1%) allowing
objective argument
Disadvantages – not all infrequent behaviours are abnormal e.g., intelligence. Not all
abnormal behaviours are infrequent, 20% clinical depression.
- Deviation from ideal mental health
Refers to the ideal psychological well-being. Marie Jahoda identified factors necessary for
mental well-being. These are: positive view of self, personal growth and developing,
autonomy, accurate view of reality, positive relationships, environmental mastery.
- Deviation from social norms
Deviation is a violation of accepted and expected behaviours e.g., self-starvation of a person
with anorexia violates norms of eating.
Advantage – indicator that there might be psychological problems
Disadvantage – may not indicate a psychological problem, one example does need help e.g.,
self-starvation however an abnormal hairstyle does not need help. Norms change within
cultures, differences in behaviour are regarded okay. Culture bound; norms vary between
cultures.
- Failure to function adequately
Means that a person is unable to lead a normal life e.g., work, relationship. When a
particular behaviour interferes with everyday life then it might be regarded as abnormal.
7 types of abnormality identified by Rosenham and Seligman. Pneumonic, stupid men vomit
up ink or vodka. Suffering, maladaptiveness, vividness, unpredictability, irrational, observer
discomfort, violation of moral standards.
Advantages – provides a criteria for psychiatrists for diagnosis
, Disadvantages – no clear cut off for each feature, subjective, no measuring devices, culture
bound or ethnocentric, normal might not be the same in each culture.
Phobias (behavioural)
Phobias are strong, persistent, irrational fear and desire to avoid an object, activity, or
situation, interferes with everyday behaviour. Seligman and Rosenham – features of
abnormality. Phobias often acknowledge that the anxiety is out of proportion to the actual
danger posed, doesn’t help reduce the anxiety/fear. There are three categories:
agoraphobia (open spaces), social phobia (social or performance fear), specific phobia
(object/thing). Patients report embarrassment or humiliation. Symptoms include panic,
dread, rapid heartbeat, terror, trembling etc.
Emotional characteristics – excessive, unreasonable fear, anxiety, and panic. Triggered by
presence or anticipation of specific object or situation. Excessive in relation to danger posed.
Cognitive characteristics – the cognitive divided into two, selective attention and irrational
beliefs. Selective attention – fixated on object feared. Irrational fear – e.g., all spiders are
dangerous.
Behavioural characteristics – avoidance and panic, e.g., avoid spiders. Face to face with said
thing was results in panic, stress, and anxiety.
- Explanations, two process model, diathesis stress, preparedness
Behavioural approach to explaining phobias, psychological approach, learned from the
environment. This includes classical (making association with a reflex) and operant
conditioning (learning via reinforcement).
Mowrer combined classical and operant to make the two-process model. CC explains how a
phobia is formed, OC how it is maintained.
Classical conditioning – the case of little Albert. In cc a phobia is learned through association
between a stimulus and a reflex. Paired loud bag with white rat, the fear is generalised.
Operant conditioning – phobia is maintained by reinforcement, strengthens a response.
Once a fear is formed, associated by fear/anxiety. Phobia is maintained by avoiding feared
object/activity. Avoids produces the fear and anxiety, produces relief. The relief is negative
reinforcement, escapes or avoid learning.
Evaluation of the two-process model by Mowrer-
Powerful model for explaining the origin and maintenance, highly scientific research, tests
under controlled conditions. Experiment by Pavlov and Skinner. Structured standardised
procedures. The model has practical applications, evidence the turtle and the egg. Evidence
is support from research on humans, many recall a specific vent when fear began, not
always. However not every incident leads to a fear. Diathesis stress model – genetic
predisposition, ‘stress’ is trigger in the environment, in this ay some people have a diathesis
to develop mental disorders, triggered by life event. Alternative theories, an alternative
theory is the evolutionary theory. Suggest that biologically prepared to fear some stimuli
e.g., snakes, heights, and strangers.
- Treatments, systematic desensitisation, flooding
2
