Maryville NURS 611 ALL QUESTIONS STUDY GUIDE
GUARANTEE A 2025/2026
Nucleus - DNA and RNA are housed here. Contains all genetic material.
Ribosomes - Responsible for protein synthesis
Mitochondria - Produces ATP. This structure generates ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Cells power
plant. The more a cell needs energy the more it will need this. The heart would need more of this than
the eyes, bones, or skin.
Golgi apparatus - Responsible for packaging and distribution. Processes and packages proteins for
delivery. Shipping and receiving center. Receives newly synthesized proteins and lipids from the ER.
Modified with sugar molecules for their destination. Then sends them on their way.
Lysosome - Degrades and recycles waste. Contains digestive enzymes. Does this with hydrolase enzymes
Peroxisome - Has a byproduct of H2O2 which produces Free Radicals. Can detoxify compounds and fatty
acids. (Think peroxide) they break things down using oxygen. Byproduct is H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide).
Digest and breakdown organic molecules - uses molecular oxygen.
Free Radical - Any molecular species capable of independent existence that contains a single unpaired
electron in an outer orbit. Having one unpaired electron makes the molecule unstable; the molecule
becomes stabilized either by donating or by accepting an electron from another molecule.
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) - Chemically reactive molecules from molecular oxygen formed as natural
oxidant species in cells during mitochondrial respiration and energy generation.
Damage by free radicals/ROS - When excessive ROSs overwhelm the endogenous antioxidant systems,
oxidative stress occurs. A very large excess of ROS tends to cause necrosis, but smaller excess of ROS can
cause apoptosis.
Free radicals can cause lipid peroxidation or the destruction of unsaturated fatty acid, alterations of
proteins, and alterations in DNA
,What is the plasma membrane made up of? - Lipids, proteins, and polysaccharides
Why do we need a cell membrane? - To keep the ICF and ECF separate, structure, protection, activation
of cell, transport, and cell-to-cell interaction
How is osmolality different between ICF and ECF? - The osmolality of ICF and ECF tends to equalize and
therefore provides a measure of body fluid concentration and thus the body's hydration status.
What do proteins do for the cell? - Proteins act as
Recognition and binding units (receptors) for substances moving in and out of the cell;
Pores or transport channels for various electrically charged particles called ions or electrolytes and
specific carriers for amino acids and monosaccharides;
Specific enzymes that drive active pumps that promote concentration of certain ions, particularly
potassium (K+), within the cell while keeping concentrations of other ions, for example sodium (Na+),
below concentrations found in the extracellular environment;
Cell surface markers, such as glycoproteins (proteins attached to carbohydrates), that identify a cell to its
neighbor;
Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), or proteins that allow cells to hook together and form attachments to
the cytoskeleton for maintaining cellular shape; and
Catalysts of chemical reactions, for example, conversion of lactose to glucose.
How much of the cell membrane is made up of protein? - 55% the cell membrane is made up of protein
What is a protein? - A protein is made from a chain of amino acids, known as polypeptides. There are 20
types of amino acids in proteins, and each type of protein has a unique sequence of amino acids.
Proteins are the major workhorses of the cell.
Tight Junctions - Impermeable. Help cells move together and don't allow things in -they help conduct
force- like pumping the heart; and moving hard stool. Tight junctions are barriers to diffusion, preventing
the movement of substances through transport proteins in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells.
Gap Junctions - Allow for conductivity to synchronize contractions of heart muscles through ionic
coupling. Channels that allow for conductivity - like the heart and nerve cells. Gap junctions are clusters
, of communicating tunnels or connexons that allow small ions and molecules to pass directly from the
inside of one cell to the inside of another.
Desmosomes - Hold cells together either by continuous bands or belts of epithelial sheets or button-like
points of contact. Also act as a system of braces to maintain structural integrity.
Oxidative phosphorylation - AKA: Cellular respiration and Glycolysis. Occurs in the mitochondria and is
the mechanism in which energy is produced from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats and this energy is
transferred to ATP. When 1 mole of glucose is metabolically broken down in the presence of oxygen into
CO2 and water - 686 Kilocalories of energy are released- in a test tube it is expressed as heat. Active
transport. Kerbs cycle.
Main cation in ICF - Potassium
Main cation in ECF - Sodium
What charge is inside the cell? - Negative
What charge is outside the cell? - Positive
The inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside
Diffusion - Non-energy form of transportation. The passive movement of a solute from an area of higher
solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration.
Example of diffusion - Urea (Urea is a small solute that readily diffuses across cellular membranes)
Facilitated diffusion - Non-energy form of transportation. KEY and LOCK... This is a carrier mediated
process that will allow particles that are too big or charged to get through the membrane. AGAIN, there
is no energy to do this process, but you have a limited capacity.
Facilitated diffusion example - Glucose and ETOH
Insulin is the key that lets the glucose in.
GUARANTEE A 2025/2026
Nucleus - DNA and RNA are housed here. Contains all genetic material.
Ribosomes - Responsible for protein synthesis
Mitochondria - Produces ATP. This structure generates ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Cells power
plant. The more a cell needs energy the more it will need this. The heart would need more of this than
the eyes, bones, or skin.
Golgi apparatus - Responsible for packaging and distribution. Processes and packages proteins for
delivery. Shipping and receiving center. Receives newly synthesized proteins and lipids from the ER.
Modified with sugar molecules for their destination. Then sends them on their way.
Lysosome - Degrades and recycles waste. Contains digestive enzymes. Does this with hydrolase enzymes
Peroxisome - Has a byproduct of H2O2 which produces Free Radicals. Can detoxify compounds and fatty
acids. (Think peroxide) they break things down using oxygen. Byproduct is H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide).
Digest and breakdown organic molecules - uses molecular oxygen.
Free Radical - Any molecular species capable of independent existence that contains a single unpaired
electron in an outer orbit. Having one unpaired electron makes the molecule unstable; the molecule
becomes stabilized either by donating or by accepting an electron from another molecule.
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) - Chemically reactive molecules from molecular oxygen formed as natural
oxidant species in cells during mitochondrial respiration and energy generation.
Damage by free radicals/ROS - When excessive ROSs overwhelm the endogenous antioxidant systems,
oxidative stress occurs. A very large excess of ROS tends to cause necrosis, but smaller excess of ROS can
cause apoptosis.
Free radicals can cause lipid peroxidation or the destruction of unsaturated fatty acid, alterations of
proteins, and alterations in DNA
,What is the plasma membrane made up of? - Lipids, proteins, and polysaccharides
Why do we need a cell membrane? - To keep the ICF and ECF separate, structure, protection, activation
of cell, transport, and cell-to-cell interaction
How is osmolality different between ICF and ECF? - The osmolality of ICF and ECF tends to equalize and
therefore provides a measure of body fluid concentration and thus the body's hydration status.
What do proteins do for the cell? - Proteins act as
Recognition and binding units (receptors) for substances moving in and out of the cell;
Pores or transport channels for various electrically charged particles called ions or electrolytes and
specific carriers for amino acids and monosaccharides;
Specific enzymes that drive active pumps that promote concentration of certain ions, particularly
potassium (K+), within the cell while keeping concentrations of other ions, for example sodium (Na+),
below concentrations found in the extracellular environment;
Cell surface markers, such as glycoproteins (proteins attached to carbohydrates), that identify a cell to its
neighbor;
Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), or proteins that allow cells to hook together and form attachments to
the cytoskeleton for maintaining cellular shape; and
Catalysts of chemical reactions, for example, conversion of lactose to glucose.
How much of the cell membrane is made up of protein? - 55% the cell membrane is made up of protein
What is a protein? - A protein is made from a chain of amino acids, known as polypeptides. There are 20
types of amino acids in proteins, and each type of protein has a unique sequence of amino acids.
Proteins are the major workhorses of the cell.
Tight Junctions - Impermeable. Help cells move together and don't allow things in -they help conduct
force- like pumping the heart; and moving hard stool. Tight junctions are barriers to diffusion, preventing
the movement of substances through transport proteins in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells.
Gap Junctions - Allow for conductivity to synchronize contractions of heart muscles through ionic
coupling. Channels that allow for conductivity - like the heart and nerve cells. Gap junctions are clusters
, of communicating tunnels or connexons that allow small ions and molecules to pass directly from the
inside of one cell to the inside of another.
Desmosomes - Hold cells together either by continuous bands or belts of epithelial sheets or button-like
points of contact. Also act as a system of braces to maintain structural integrity.
Oxidative phosphorylation - AKA: Cellular respiration and Glycolysis. Occurs in the mitochondria and is
the mechanism in which energy is produced from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats and this energy is
transferred to ATP. When 1 mole of glucose is metabolically broken down in the presence of oxygen into
CO2 and water - 686 Kilocalories of energy are released- in a test tube it is expressed as heat. Active
transport. Kerbs cycle.
Main cation in ICF - Potassium
Main cation in ECF - Sodium
What charge is inside the cell? - Negative
What charge is outside the cell? - Positive
The inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside
Diffusion - Non-energy form of transportation. The passive movement of a solute from an area of higher
solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration.
Example of diffusion - Urea (Urea is a small solute that readily diffuses across cellular membranes)
Facilitated diffusion - Non-energy form of transportation. KEY and LOCK... This is a carrier mediated
process that will allow particles that are too big or charged to get through the membrane. AGAIN, there
is no energy to do this process, but you have a limited capacity.
Facilitated diffusion example - Glucose and ETOH
Insulin is the key that lets the glucose in.
