FINAL EXAM VERSION 2 STUDY GUIDE
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY SCI 225 AND
ACTUAL ANSWERS.
Be familiar with the following terms: pathogenesis, sequel, etiology, idiopathic, congenital, metabolic
degenerative and traumatic - Answer Pathogenesis: describes how the cause of a disease leads to
anatomical and physiological changes in the body that ultimately result in the disease. Sequel: The
aftermath of a particular disease. Etiology: The cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease
or condition. Idiopathic: If the cause of a disease is not known. Congenital: Exist at or date from birth;
can be acquired through heredity or acquired during development in the uterus. Metabolic
degenerative: Function or structure of the affected tissues or organs progressively deteriorate over time,
disruption of normal metabolism, the process of converting food to energy on a cellular level. Traumatic:
Physical or chemical injury.
Know the two overlapping arms of adaptive immunity (cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity) -
Answer Humoral immunity is due to the action of antibodies, which are proteins produced by white
blood cells called B lymphocytes (or B cells). Cell-mediated immunity provides a defense against viruses,
abnormal cells, and other intracellular pathogens, and it is the arm of the immune system responsible
for rejecting tissue grafts and organ transplants. T lympho- cytes (or T cells) are responsible for cell-
mediated immunity.
Be familiar with the Four types of Hypersensitivity and on how they can be distinguished one from
another. - Answer There are several different types of hypersensitivity: immediate (or Type I), cytotoxic
(or Type II), immune-complex (or Type III), and delayed (or Type IV). Type I is the most common type of
allergy. Type I is a local allergy, occurring rapidly where the allergen encounters the body. The Type I
reaction is triggered by IgE, the immunoglobulin that responds to the presence of allergens. Type II
hypersensitivity is called cytotoxic because IgM or IgG causes the destruction of cells. An example of
cytotoxic hypersensitivity is the response to an incompatible blood transfusion. Type III Hypersensitivity
Type III hypersensitivity is called immune- complex hypersensitivity. Type III involves anti- gens
combining with many antibodies in the blood, forming a soluble mass of antigens and antibodies known
as immune complexes. These immune complexes deposit in tissues and blood vessels where they trigger
inflammation and tissue destruction. Type IV Hypersensitivity Type IV hypersensitivities are called
delayed hypersensitivities because they take time to develop following exposure to an allergen. The
delay occurs because the allergy is due to the action of T cells, which require time to recognize the
allergen, reproduce and differentiate, and bring about the allergy symptoms. Delayed hypersensitivity
includes the skin reaction to poison ivy or poison oak, contact dermatitis from wearing latex gloves.
,Know how antifungal drugs destroy fungal diseases (cell membranes). - Answer Targets fungal walls
and membranes but can affect human cells as well, leading to toxic side effects
Be familiar with the rubella virus. - Answer Rubella (German measles or three-day measles) is caused
by the rubella virus. The rubella virus is highly contagious and is spread by respiratory droplets, by
airborne transmission, and can also be transmitted from pregnant women to their fetus. When rubella
occurs in a pregnant woman, it may cause congenital rubella syndrome, with potentially devastating
consequences for the developing fetus. Many people with rubella have few or no signs or symptoms.
Some rubella patients develop a rash that appears as either pink or light red spots, which may merge to
form evenly colored patches. Other signs and symptoms of rubella, which are more common in teens
and adults, may include headache; loss of appetite; mild conjunctivitis (inflammation of the lining of the
eyelids and eyeballs); a stuffy or runny nose; swollen lymph nodes in other parts of the body; and pain
and swelling in the joints (especially in young women).
Know about osteosarcoma - Answer a malignant tumor of bone. These tumors are found in muscle,
bone, and cartilage.
Know about Tumor Markers and their relation to both cancer cells and normal healthy cells - Answer
Tumor markers are chemicals made by tumor cells that can be detected in blood. Tumor markers are also
produced by some normal cells in the body and levels may be significantly elevated in noncancerous
conditions. This limits the potential for tumor marker tests to help in diagnosing cancer. Examples of
tumor markers include prostate-specific antigen for prostate cancer and cancer antigen 125 for ovarian
cancer.
Know about alleles and their relation to the following traits: haploid, homozygous, heterozygous and
diploid - Answer . Alleles are alternative forms of a gene, and one of these alleles is located on each of
the paired chromosomes. If two of the same allele is inherited, the person is homozygous for that trait. If
the alleles are different then the person is heterozygous for that trait. Some alleles always produce their
trait when inherited and are said to be dominant. The result of inheriting the dominant allele is usually
the same whether a person is homozygous or heterozygous. Other alleles are recessive, and only.
manifest themselves when the person is homozygous for the trait. Certain deviations from the basic
principles of inheritance have been described. Some alleles are co-dominant, so that when both are
inherited, both traits are expressed. An example of co-dominant alleles is found in blood type AB. The
allele for the A factor is inherited from one parent and the allele for the B factor from the other, but both
alleles are expressed. At times, a dominant allele is not fully expressed, a condition known as reduced
penetrance. Various factors modify the expression of genes, including other genes, environmental
conditions, and gender. Examples of reduced penetrance include Huntington's disease and Marfan
syndrome, in which varying severity of disease occurs when the genes are inherited.
, Know about Cerebal Palsy and its relation to the following: sex-linked, heterozygous, homozygous and
congenital. - Answer Cerebral palsy (CP) is a congenital disorder characterized by impaired muscle
movement, tone, and posture. CP is almost always present at birth and affects about 1 in 300 children.
Cerebral palsy is usually apparent before 3 years of age. If the alleles are different then the person is
heterozygous for that trait.
Be familiar with Angioplasty - Answer Angioplasty is a procedure used to open a partly occluded artery
involves inserting a balloontipped catheter into the femoral artery, then guiding it to the heart and into
the narrowed coronary artery. The balloon is expanded to press against the vessel walls and open the
lumen. A stent, which is a cylindrical wire mesh of stainless steel or other alloy, surrounds the balloon.
Expansion of the balloon forces the mesh into the lining of the vessel, which physically holds the lumen
open. Because the vessels commonly become occluded again (restenosis) within months or a year, stents
are coated with drugs that prevent restenosis.
. Be familiar with the following: bypass, ablation, defibrillator and electrocardioversion. - Answer
Coronary artery bypass surgery reroutes blood flow around the clogged arteries to improve blood flow
and oxygen supply to the heart. Catheter ablation is a nonsurgical procedure in which a catheter is
inserted into the diseased area of the heart. A machine directs energy through the catheter to small
areas of the heart that cause the abnormal heart rhythm. The machine that delivers electrical shocks
used to reestablish normal heart rhythm. Electrocardioversion is accomplished using an external device
or a surgically placed internal pacemaker.
Be familiar with polycythemia vera , thalassemia, sickle cell anemia and thrombocytopenia.. - Answer
Polycythemia describes a condition in which red blood cell mass is increased. This condition is
categorized as relative or absolute. In relative polycythemia, the increase in red blood cell mass is due to
a loss of plasma volume without a corresponding decrease in red blood cells. This may occur in cases of
dehydration or excessive use of diuretics.
Be familiar with the coagulation factors and the clotting cascade - Answer Coagulation Factors Certain
coagulation factors are synthesized in the liver. Coagulation factors VII, IX, X, and prothrombin require
the presence of vitamin K for normal activity. Clotting cascade is what activates all to work together.
Be familiar with normal oxygen saturation rates - Answer Normal rates are greater than 90%.
Be familiar with a rapid strep test and/or throat culture and that it is used to diagnosed tonsillitis. -
Answer The rapid strep test is a rapid antigen detection test that is widely used in clinics to assist in the
diagnosis of bacterial pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci, sometimes termed strep throat. If it is
a result of a bacterial infection antibiotics are an appropriate treatment. Treatment for viral tonsillitis is
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY SCI 225 AND
ACTUAL ANSWERS.
Be familiar with the following terms: pathogenesis, sequel, etiology, idiopathic, congenital, metabolic
degenerative and traumatic - Answer Pathogenesis: describes how the cause of a disease leads to
anatomical and physiological changes in the body that ultimately result in the disease. Sequel: The
aftermath of a particular disease. Etiology: The cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease
or condition. Idiopathic: If the cause of a disease is not known. Congenital: Exist at or date from birth;
can be acquired through heredity or acquired during development in the uterus. Metabolic
degenerative: Function or structure of the affected tissues or organs progressively deteriorate over time,
disruption of normal metabolism, the process of converting food to energy on a cellular level. Traumatic:
Physical or chemical injury.
Know the two overlapping arms of adaptive immunity (cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity) -
Answer Humoral immunity is due to the action of antibodies, which are proteins produced by white
blood cells called B lymphocytes (or B cells). Cell-mediated immunity provides a defense against viruses,
abnormal cells, and other intracellular pathogens, and it is the arm of the immune system responsible
for rejecting tissue grafts and organ transplants. T lympho- cytes (or T cells) are responsible for cell-
mediated immunity.
Be familiar with the Four types of Hypersensitivity and on how they can be distinguished one from
another. - Answer There are several different types of hypersensitivity: immediate (or Type I), cytotoxic
(or Type II), immune-complex (or Type III), and delayed (or Type IV). Type I is the most common type of
allergy. Type I is a local allergy, occurring rapidly where the allergen encounters the body. The Type I
reaction is triggered by IgE, the immunoglobulin that responds to the presence of allergens. Type II
hypersensitivity is called cytotoxic because IgM or IgG causes the destruction of cells. An example of
cytotoxic hypersensitivity is the response to an incompatible blood transfusion. Type III Hypersensitivity
Type III hypersensitivity is called immune- complex hypersensitivity. Type III involves anti- gens
combining with many antibodies in the blood, forming a soluble mass of antigens and antibodies known
as immune complexes. These immune complexes deposit in tissues and blood vessels where they trigger
inflammation and tissue destruction. Type IV Hypersensitivity Type IV hypersensitivities are called
delayed hypersensitivities because they take time to develop following exposure to an allergen. The
delay occurs because the allergy is due to the action of T cells, which require time to recognize the
allergen, reproduce and differentiate, and bring about the allergy symptoms. Delayed hypersensitivity
includes the skin reaction to poison ivy or poison oak, contact dermatitis from wearing latex gloves.
,Know how antifungal drugs destroy fungal diseases (cell membranes). - Answer Targets fungal walls
and membranes but can affect human cells as well, leading to toxic side effects
Be familiar with the rubella virus. - Answer Rubella (German measles or three-day measles) is caused
by the rubella virus. The rubella virus is highly contagious and is spread by respiratory droplets, by
airborne transmission, and can also be transmitted from pregnant women to their fetus. When rubella
occurs in a pregnant woman, it may cause congenital rubella syndrome, with potentially devastating
consequences for the developing fetus. Many people with rubella have few or no signs or symptoms.
Some rubella patients develop a rash that appears as either pink or light red spots, which may merge to
form evenly colored patches. Other signs and symptoms of rubella, which are more common in teens
and adults, may include headache; loss of appetite; mild conjunctivitis (inflammation of the lining of the
eyelids and eyeballs); a stuffy or runny nose; swollen lymph nodes in other parts of the body; and pain
and swelling in the joints (especially in young women).
Know about osteosarcoma - Answer a malignant tumor of bone. These tumors are found in muscle,
bone, and cartilage.
Know about Tumor Markers and their relation to both cancer cells and normal healthy cells - Answer
Tumor markers are chemicals made by tumor cells that can be detected in blood. Tumor markers are also
produced by some normal cells in the body and levels may be significantly elevated in noncancerous
conditions. This limits the potential for tumor marker tests to help in diagnosing cancer. Examples of
tumor markers include prostate-specific antigen for prostate cancer and cancer antigen 125 for ovarian
cancer.
Know about alleles and their relation to the following traits: haploid, homozygous, heterozygous and
diploid - Answer . Alleles are alternative forms of a gene, and one of these alleles is located on each of
the paired chromosomes. If two of the same allele is inherited, the person is homozygous for that trait. If
the alleles are different then the person is heterozygous for that trait. Some alleles always produce their
trait when inherited and are said to be dominant. The result of inheriting the dominant allele is usually
the same whether a person is homozygous or heterozygous. Other alleles are recessive, and only.
manifest themselves when the person is homozygous for the trait. Certain deviations from the basic
principles of inheritance have been described. Some alleles are co-dominant, so that when both are
inherited, both traits are expressed. An example of co-dominant alleles is found in blood type AB. The
allele for the A factor is inherited from one parent and the allele for the B factor from the other, but both
alleles are expressed. At times, a dominant allele is not fully expressed, a condition known as reduced
penetrance. Various factors modify the expression of genes, including other genes, environmental
conditions, and gender. Examples of reduced penetrance include Huntington's disease and Marfan
syndrome, in which varying severity of disease occurs when the genes are inherited.
, Know about Cerebal Palsy and its relation to the following: sex-linked, heterozygous, homozygous and
congenital. - Answer Cerebral palsy (CP) is a congenital disorder characterized by impaired muscle
movement, tone, and posture. CP is almost always present at birth and affects about 1 in 300 children.
Cerebral palsy is usually apparent before 3 years of age. If the alleles are different then the person is
heterozygous for that trait.
Be familiar with Angioplasty - Answer Angioplasty is a procedure used to open a partly occluded artery
involves inserting a balloontipped catheter into the femoral artery, then guiding it to the heart and into
the narrowed coronary artery. The balloon is expanded to press against the vessel walls and open the
lumen. A stent, which is a cylindrical wire mesh of stainless steel or other alloy, surrounds the balloon.
Expansion of the balloon forces the mesh into the lining of the vessel, which physically holds the lumen
open. Because the vessels commonly become occluded again (restenosis) within months or a year, stents
are coated with drugs that prevent restenosis.
. Be familiar with the following: bypass, ablation, defibrillator and electrocardioversion. - Answer
Coronary artery bypass surgery reroutes blood flow around the clogged arteries to improve blood flow
and oxygen supply to the heart. Catheter ablation is a nonsurgical procedure in which a catheter is
inserted into the diseased area of the heart. A machine directs energy through the catheter to small
areas of the heart that cause the abnormal heart rhythm. The machine that delivers electrical shocks
used to reestablish normal heart rhythm. Electrocardioversion is accomplished using an external device
or a surgically placed internal pacemaker.
Be familiar with polycythemia vera , thalassemia, sickle cell anemia and thrombocytopenia.. - Answer
Polycythemia describes a condition in which red blood cell mass is increased. This condition is
categorized as relative or absolute. In relative polycythemia, the increase in red blood cell mass is due to
a loss of plasma volume without a corresponding decrease in red blood cells. This may occur in cases of
dehydration or excessive use of diuretics.
Be familiar with the coagulation factors and the clotting cascade - Answer Coagulation Factors Certain
coagulation factors are synthesized in the liver. Coagulation factors VII, IX, X, and prothrombin require
the presence of vitamin K for normal activity. Clotting cascade is what activates all to work together.
Be familiar with normal oxygen saturation rates - Answer Normal rates are greater than 90%.
Be familiar with a rapid strep test and/or throat culture and that it is used to diagnosed tonsillitis. -
Answer The rapid strep test is a rapid antigen detection test that is widely used in clinics to assist in the
diagnosis of bacterial pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci, sometimes termed strep throat. If it is
a result of a bacterial infection antibiotics are an appropriate treatment. Treatment for viral tonsillitis is
