Problem 7 – Shaffer & Berk + article
Sex: a person’s biological identity
Gender: cognitive and social differences between males and females
Gender identity: the perceptions of one’s self as masculine or feminine
Gender typing: the process by which a child becomes aware of his/her gender and acquires
motives, values and behaviors considered appropriate for members of that sex
Gender role standard (stereotypes): a behavior, value or motive that members of a society consider
more typical or appropriate for members of one sex. A society’s gender role standards describe
how males and females are expected to behave and reflect the stereotypes
Sexual orientation: the preference for same-or-opposite gender sexual partners
Girls have been encouraged to have an expressive role: involves being kind, nurturing, cooperative, and
sensitive to others’ needs. These traits would prepare girls to play wife and mother, take care of the family
and raise children.
Boys are encouraged to have an instrumental role: involves being dominant, assertive, independent and
competitive. These traits would prepare boys to play traditional husband and father, provide for the family
and protect it. Similar norms are found in many societies.
Researchers analyzed gender typing practices to 5 attributes: nurturance, obedience, responsibility,
achievement and self-reliance. (achievement and self-reliance – boys, nurturance, obedience and
responsibility – girls). All 5 attributes are encouraged in both boys and girls but different emphasis on
different attributes depending on sex.
Gender stereotyping in early childhood:
- between 18 months to 3 years children can label their own and other’s sex.
- Before age 2, they begin to understand subtle associations with gender and acquire gender-
stereotypes.
- Most preschoolers don’t yet understand that the characteristics which are associated with being
male or female don’t determine a person’s sex.
Gender stereotyping in middle childhood and adolescence:
- By age 5, gender stereotyping of activities is well established.
- By adolescence they understand gender-stereotypic attributes don’t define gender
- gender-stereotype flexibility: overlap in the characteristics of males and females
- But crossing gender lines is not approved most of the time. They might experience per disapproval
too. Boys tend to hold more gender-stereotyped views than girls throughout childhood and
adolescence. Higher SES individuals hold more flexible views than lower.
- Development of gender-typed patterns of behavior: Most common way to assess the gender
appropriateness is by looking at gender segregation: children’s tendency to associate with same-sex
playmates and to think of the other sex as an outgroup.
Influences on Gender Stereotyping and Gender Roles (culture, biological, environ., cognitive)
Environmental:
- Gender typed play contexts start as early as first months.
- Parents actively reinforce independency in boys and dependency in girls
- Language is also a powerful indirect way for teaching children about gender roles.
- Parents hold gender differentiated perceptions and expectations for children’s competencies in
various school subjects. They think boys are competent in math.
- Parents use more directive speech to girls in everyday life more than to boys
, - Patterns of greater involvement with the same-sex children by mothers and fathers
- Teachers reinforce feminine -classroom appropriate- behavior to both boys and girls
- Teachers give more attention to boys than girls, they tend to praise boys more
- When children engage in cross gender activities, peers criticize so children come to believe in the
correctness of gender-segregated play
- Older siblings serve as powerful models, same-sex siblings are more gender-typed
Theories of Gender Typing and Gender-Role Development
1. Evolutionary Theory
Men and women faced different evolutionary pressures over time and the natural selection process
conspired to create fundamental differences that determined gender divisions at labor. Woman became
gentle and nurturant to successfully raise children and men are competitive and aggressive to find multiple
partners and hunt. Male superiority in spatial abilities could be because of hunting.
Criticism:
- ignores differences that are limited to particular cultures or time period
- social role hypothesis: psychological sex differences and other gender stereotypes are created by
socially assigned roles e.g. provider vs homemaker and agreed-upon socialization practices promote
traits
2. Biosocial Theory of Gender Differentiation and Development (Money & Ehrhardt)
There are critical events that affects a person’s eventual preference for the masculine or feminine gender
role. The 1st critical event happens at conception when the child inherits either the X or Y chromosome. If
there is Y, embryo develops testes, otherwise ovaries. This determines the 2 nd event relating to hormones.
The testes secrete testosterone and Mullerian inhibiting hormone and form male internal organs. In the
absence of these female internal organs form. The 3rd critical point is 3-4 months after conception when
the baby grows penis and scrotum in the presence of testosterone. If testosterone is absent or TFS is
inherited, female genitalia forms. Testosterone also alters brain development and stops men from having
cyclical hormonal patterns.
When the baby is born social factors come into play. Parents and others label the baby and react to the
child based on the appearance of the genitals. Biological factors once again come into play in puberty.
Many hormones are released and stimulate the growth of reproductive systems, secondary characteristics,
and sexual urges. These events provide basis for an adult gender identity and gender role preference.
Evidence:
- Genetic influences on sex differences: developmental disorders seen in boys may be x-linked
recessive traits. Adolescent twin studies suggest that genotype account for 50% of the difference in
people’s masculine self-concepts and 0-20% in feminine self-concepts.
- Hormonal influences: Children who has been exposed to wrong hormones during the prenatal
period show differences. CAH has a genetic defect on adrenal glands and produces high levels of
androgen and masculinizes females. Many of these androgenized females are tomboys compared
to other girls. They prefer boy toys and activities. They also perform better at spatial abilities. The
greater the exposure to male sex hormones, the greater interest in masculine toys and careers. In
males, in androgen insensitivity syndrome, testes produce normal levels of androgen but the
receptors are impaired. Children with partial androgen effects display more feminine behaviors.
- Social labeling influences: some androgenized girls have been labeled as boys. Sex change can occur
before 18 months of age but after age 3 gender reassignment is difficult because they experienced
prolonged masculine gender typing. Money & Ehrhardt claimed that there is a critical period
Sex: a person’s biological identity
Gender: cognitive and social differences between males and females
Gender identity: the perceptions of one’s self as masculine or feminine
Gender typing: the process by which a child becomes aware of his/her gender and acquires
motives, values and behaviors considered appropriate for members of that sex
Gender role standard (stereotypes): a behavior, value or motive that members of a society consider
more typical or appropriate for members of one sex. A society’s gender role standards describe
how males and females are expected to behave and reflect the stereotypes
Sexual orientation: the preference for same-or-opposite gender sexual partners
Girls have been encouraged to have an expressive role: involves being kind, nurturing, cooperative, and
sensitive to others’ needs. These traits would prepare girls to play wife and mother, take care of the family
and raise children.
Boys are encouraged to have an instrumental role: involves being dominant, assertive, independent and
competitive. These traits would prepare boys to play traditional husband and father, provide for the family
and protect it. Similar norms are found in many societies.
Researchers analyzed gender typing practices to 5 attributes: nurturance, obedience, responsibility,
achievement and self-reliance. (achievement and self-reliance – boys, nurturance, obedience and
responsibility – girls). All 5 attributes are encouraged in both boys and girls but different emphasis on
different attributes depending on sex.
Gender stereotyping in early childhood:
- between 18 months to 3 years children can label their own and other’s sex.
- Before age 2, they begin to understand subtle associations with gender and acquire gender-
stereotypes.
- Most preschoolers don’t yet understand that the characteristics which are associated with being
male or female don’t determine a person’s sex.
Gender stereotyping in middle childhood and adolescence:
- By age 5, gender stereotyping of activities is well established.
- By adolescence they understand gender-stereotypic attributes don’t define gender
- gender-stereotype flexibility: overlap in the characteristics of males and females
- But crossing gender lines is not approved most of the time. They might experience per disapproval
too. Boys tend to hold more gender-stereotyped views than girls throughout childhood and
adolescence. Higher SES individuals hold more flexible views than lower.
- Development of gender-typed patterns of behavior: Most common way to assess the gender
appropriateness is by looking at gender segregation: children’s tendency to associate with same-sex
playmates and to think of the other sex as an outgroup.
Influences on Gender Stereotyping and Gender Roles (culture, biological, environ., cognitive)
Environmental:
- Gender typed play contexts start as early as first months.
- Parents actively reinforce independency in boys and dependency in girls
- Language is also a powerful indirect way for teaching children about gender roles.
- Parents hold gender differentiated perceptions and expectations for children’s competencies in
various school subjects. They think boys are competent in math.
- Parents use more directive speech to girls in everyday life more than to boys
, - Patterns of greater involvement with the same-sex children by mothers and fathers
- Teachers reinforce feminine -classroom appropriate- behavior to both boys and girls
- Teachers give more attention to boys than girls, they tend to praise boys more
- When children engage in cross gender activities, peers criticize so children come to believe in the
correctness of gender-segregated play
- Older siblings serve as powerful models, same-sex siblings are more gender-typed
Theories of Gender Typing and Gender-Role Development
1. Evolutionary Theory
Men and women faced different evolutionary pressures over time and the natural selection process
conspired to create fundamental differences that determined gender divisions at labor. Woman became
gentle and nurturant to successfully raise children and men are competitive and aggressive to find multiple
partners and hunt. Male superiority in spatial abilities could be because of hunting.
Criticism:
- ignores differences that are limited to particular cultures or time period
- social role hypothesis: psychological sex differences and other gender stereotypes are created by
socially assigned roles e.g. provider vs homemaker and agreed-upon socialization practices promote
traits
2. Biosocial Theory of Gender Differentiation and Development (Money & Ehrhardt)
There are critical events that affects a person’s eventual preference for the masculine or feminine gender
role. The 1st critical event happens at conception when the child inherits either the X or Y chromosome. If
there is Y, embryo develops testes, otherwise ovaries. This determines the 2 nd event relating to hormones.
The testes secrete testosterone and Mullerian inhibiting hormone and form male internal organs. In the
absence of these female internal organs form. The 3rd critical point is 3-4 months after conception when
the baby grows penis and scrotum in the presence of testosterone. If testosterone is absent or TFS is
inherited, female genitalia forms. Testosterone also alters brain development and stops men from having
cyclical hormonal patterns.
When the baby is born social factors come into play. Parents and others label the baby and react to the
child based on the appearance of the genitals. Biological factors once again come into play in puberty.
Many hormones are released and stimulate the growth of reproductive systems, secondary characteristics,
and sexual urges. These events provide basis for an adult gender identity and gender role preference.
Evidence:
- Genetic influences on sex differences: developmental disorders seen in boys may be x-linked
recessive traits. Adolescent twin studies suggest that genotype account for 50% of the difference in
people’s masculine self-concepts and 0-20% in feminine self-concepts.
- Hormonal influences: Children who has been exposed to wrong hormones during the prenatal
period show differences. CAH has a genetic defect on adrenal glands and produces high levels of
androgen and masculinizes females. Many of these androgenized females are tomboys compared
to other girls. They prefer boy toys and activities. They also perform better at spatial abilities. The
greater the exposure to male sex hormones, the greater interest in masculine toys and careers. In
males, in androgen insensitivity syndrome, testes produce normal levels of androgen but the
receptors are impaired. Children with partial androgen effects display more feminine behaviors.
- Social labeling influences: some androgenized girls have been labeled as boys. Sex change can occur
before 18 months of age but after age 3 gender reassignment is difficult because they experienced
prolonged masculine gender typing. Money & Ehrhardt claimed that there is a critical period
