PAPER 1
a) Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1913-1941)
→ Causes of expansion
Impact of nationalism and militarism on foreign policy
→ major modernization in 20th century → ultranationalist state (Meiji Restoration) → to protect Japan from
foreign domination, but eventually military control
● Meiji restoration:
→ feudalism abolished, industry development, parliment (Diet), Japanese constitution
→ emperor head + divine
→ extreme power to military (veto government)
→ education compulsory (emphasis on loyalty, family, community, emperor: radical nationalism)- literacy-
aware of politics
● Militarism:
→ great power for Asian domination (VS West) → influence on foreign policy:
● Impact on Foreign Policy:
→ Korea (1876-1905) : economic/political interests
- Japan-Korea Treaty (1876) → trade, not reliable on China anymore→ sino-jap war.
→ 1st Sino-Japanese War (1894-1905) → Japan advanced technology → Manchuria (homeland of Quing
dinasty)
- Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) for Japanese industrialization and trade.
- Tripartite intervention (Russia, Germany, France) → humiliate Jap. → persisted industrialization and
seeking allies
→ Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902) → collective security against Russian expansion
→ Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905)
- Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900) → protect railway, but stayed→ Jap. attached Port Arthur and invaded
Korea.
- Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) → ended war, gain international respect and authority
→ WW1: opportunity to showcase power
- Aid UK against Germany
- 21 demands to China (1915) → capitulated, US/UK concerned
- Paris Peace Conference (1919) → join LoN, but discrimination?
→ Inter-war treaties: Japanese expansion through military → but costly, and careful of superpower relations
(Jap. economy relied on exports)
- Washington Naval Conference and Treaties (1921-22) (Five-Power Treaty) → restriction on navy.
- London Naval Conference (1930)
- Great Depression (29-39)
- Japanese weak navy/economy → political parties want expansion → increased spending in military →
grow radical nationalism.
Domestic issues (political/economics + impact on int. relations)
→ Domestic instability
- Zaibatsu (monopolies with Diet and Military support)
- Industrialization → rural to uran, greatly affected by trade decrease
- Great depression → trade barrier (US) → military-controlled government: 12-year plan → rise of
communism (violently repressed+ Anti-cominterm pact with Hitler (36)) - series of coups (31-36)
- Showa restoration → power in emperor, remove corruption → military intentionally divided.
- Struggle for power within military: Imperial Way Faction VS Control Faction (increase army influence
over government)
Foreign Instability: China
- Warlord era (1916-1928)
, - Zhang assassinated (28)
- Japan wanted weak and divided China
→ Manchurian incident (31)
- 4x Japan, low population, resources (90% Chinese oil)
- Bomb near railway, excuse to attack
Results: deteriorating relations with USA/UK → leave the LoN after Lytton Report
→ Japanese isulation → leave Washington Naval Agreement
→ Manchuko state + bombed Shanghai → treaty of Tanggu, but still control Manchuria (nationalism grows →
economic and public support)
→ 2nd Sino-Japanese War (37)
- Marco Polo Bridge incident → rape of Nanjing (extremely violent)
- 1941: complete military control of Japan → continue to capture european colonies in Asia, which don’t
respond because of WW2 involvement (necessary for Jap: running out of resources)
- 1940: Tripartite Axis Pact (Berlin Pact) → Germany/Italy europe domination, Japan asian domination
- 1941: Secure border with USSR: neutrality pact
- 1941: Pearl Harbor→ conflict with US regarding territory/trade (oil embargo) + went on to attack
colonies in Asia (Philippines etc.)
International Response to Japanese Agression
LoN responses
- Manchurian Crisis → China went to LoN → Lytton Report (1 year to arrive, Manchuko state, please
leave) → Japan rejects report and leave
→ Passive? France → colonies, would gain from weak China/Britain → no military means to resist +
lack of national interest (+ GD)
→ Impact: inspires other authoritarian leaders? Mussilini-Abyssinia/Hitler-Rhineland
Political Developments in China
- GMS more preoccupied about CCP than Japanes invasion BUT civil war temporarely halted
→ Second United Front (1937-1941) → Communist determination to fight Japanese get social support → WIN
USA:
- Stay out of international affairs → no means in pacific (GD + lack of national interest) → trade with Jap.
- Stimson Non-Recognition Doctrine (doesn’t recognize Jap. inv. in China)
- Neutrality Pacts (US isolatonism)
- 1938: more agressive → oil loans to China + trade agreements suspended in 1939.
Tripartite Pact:
→ Italy, Germany, Japan (40)
→ mainly propaganda, directed at US
b) German and Italian Expansion (1933-1940)
- Impact of fascism/nazism + expantionist foreign policy
→ From WW1-WW2 : political turmoil/failed revolutions
→ Semi-fascist governments in Spain and Portugal
→ Fascism a response from French Revolution/ Napolenic wars.
ITALY:
- Terra Irredenta → all Italians together
- Scramble for Africa: Eritrea (1882) / Ethiopia (1855) / Abyssinia (1895)
WW1/Peace Treaties:
- 1910: ANI (Italian Nationalists) formed (extreme)
- Italy not involved in war immediately (lack of national interest) + switched sides
- 1915: Treaty of London → switched sides to the Tripple Entente : promised to support Italy’s
territorial ambitions → dissapointed when don’t get Fiume/African colonies
Emergence of Nationalism/Fascism:
, - Mutilated victory → liberals blamed
- Il Popolo d’Italia (Mussolini’s newspaper)
- 1919: Fascio di Cobattimento
- 1921: National Fascist Party (PNF)
→ stressed commitment to strong government/patriotism and imperial expansionism for popular support
After emergence: consolidation of power and agressive foreign policy:
- Romanita movement → glory of Ancient Rome
- Corfu incident (1923) → Italian general murdured in Greece, ignored LoN, invaded (popularity boost
as national hero)
- “Il Duce”, propaganda, ideology in education.
- Spazio Vitale (expantionism)
BUT avoided agressive foreign policy up to 1933 (appease Britain and France + not strong enough)
GERMANY:
- State divided by religion
- Before WW1: create large modern army and use diplomacy as means of protection
WW1 and Peace Treaties:
- Versailles → extremely harsh terms/ not Wilson’s 14 points + diktat → imminent military invasion
→ war guilt clause, reparations, limited arms, territory, not LoN
→ november criminals → government blamed, resulting in loss of popular support (rise of nationalism/nazism)
Emergence of Nazism:
- Mein Kampf (1924) → Lebensraum (vs spaziovitale) + get rid of left/center → unline Italy, not aimed at
territorial expansion → resources.
→ agressive/expanionist foreign policy (resist USSR)
- 1919: Hitler joins worker’s party → use injustice at Versaille + advocate a great German Reign for
support
- 1923: March on Berlin (VS March on Rome) → failed → Beer Hall Putsch, after imprissoned
Economic Issues → Expansionism:
Italy:
WW1→ debt, inflation, unemployment
- North VS South (economy lower than European average) + division
→ GOAL: self-sufficient: create autarky, but in the end more disadvantages than advantages
- 1924: Battle to fight poverty
- 1925: Battle for grain
- 1926: Battle for land
- 1926: Battle for Lira
GD: horrible, increased push for autarky, economic weakness plays role in WW2.
Germany:
- Versailles → debt, inflation, unemployment
→ Rentenmark, Stressemann negotiates reparations
→ “Golden Years” → boom (1924)
GD: dependent on US loans → affected → promotes Nazi rise (desperate times call for desperate measures)
→ 1933: Hitler Chancellor → Nazi state
→ GOAL: establish German autarky
- Wehrwirtschaft (war economy) → prepare for war (Hitler gave economic priority to military
expansion/research development.
Collapse of Collective Security/Appeasement → German and Italian foreign policy
- Weakness of LoN
, → non-membership: USSR (fear of communism), Germany, US not there
German foreign policy:
→ World Disarmament Conference (32 → fails in 34), Germany leaves in 33
→ Mutual assistanc pact with France/Anglo-German Naval Treaty (35) → undermine Stresa Front
Italian foreign policy:
→ expansion from 22-33 (diplomatic approach though)
- Corfu (23), Fiume (1919), Locarno (1925), Kellogg-Briand pact (28), London Peace Conference (12)
→ 33-34 → not with LoN → allign with Hitler
- Rome-Berlin Axis (1936), Pact of Steel (1939)
- Timeline LoN Failures
→ Failed Anshluss (34)
→ Abyssinia (35) → Stresa front (Italy, France, Britain) collapses (Hoare-Laval plan although could just block
Suez)
→ Rhineland (36)
→ Cominterm Pact (Germany and Japan) (36)
→ Italy leaves LoN (37)
→ Spanish Civil War (36-39)
→ Manchuria (31-32)
→ Anshluss (38)
→ Munich Agreement (38) (Appeasement not a policy of the LoN)
- Economic crisis → states reluctant to apply economic sanctions → Hoare-Laval, Munich
(USSR/Czechoslovakia not present → Sudetenland to Germany)
→ Invasion of Czechoslovakia (39)
→ Nazi-Soviet Pact (39) → Opperation Barbaross (41)
- Phony War (1940)
→ from September 1939 to April 1940, after the blitzkrieg attack on Poland in September 1939l → nothing
happened.
→ Invasion of Poland yes, but little conflict in Western Europe → children evacuated returned to their families.
→ British ‘bombing’ raids over Germany – but not bombs: propaganda leaflets.
a) Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1913-1941)
→ Causes of expansion
Impact of nationalism and militarism on foreign policy
→ major modernization in 20th century → ultranationalist state (Meiji Restoration) → to protect Japan from
foreign domination, but eventually military control
● Meiji restoration:
→ feudalism abolished, industry development, parliment (Diet), Japanese constitution
→ emperor head + divine
→ extreme power to military (veto government)
→ education compulsory (emphasis on loyalty, family, community, emperor: radical nationalism)- literacy-
aware of politics
● Militarism:
→ great power for Asian domination (VS West) → influence on foreign policy:
● Impact on Foreign Policy:
→ Korea (1876-1905) : economic/political interests
- Japan-Korea Treaty (1876) → trade, not reliable on China anymore→ sino-jap war.
→ 1st Sino-Japanese War (1894-1905) → Japan advanced technology → Manchuria (homeland of Quing
dinasty)
- Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) for Japanese industrialization and trade.
- Tripartite intervention (Russia, Germany, France) → humiliate Jap. → persisted industrialization and
seeking allies
→ Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902) → collective security against Russian expansion
→ Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905)
- Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900) → protect railway, but stayed→ Jap. attached Port Arthur and invaded
Korea.
- Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) → ended war, gain international respect and authority
→ WW1: opportunity to showcase power
- Aid UK against Germany
- 21 demands to China (1915) → capitulated, US/UK concerned
- Paris Peace Conference (1919) → join LoN, but discrimination?
→ Inter-war treaties: Japanese expansion through military → but costly, and careful of superpower relations
(Jap. economy relied on exports)
- Washington Naval Conference and Treaties (1921-22) (Five-Power Treaty) → restriction on navy.
- London Naval Conference (1930)
- Great Depression (29-39)
- Japanese weak navy/economy → political parties want expansion → increased spending in military →
grow radical nationalism.
Domestic issues (political/economics + impact on int. relations)
→ Domestic instability
- Zaibatsu (monopolies with Diet and Military support)
- Industrialization → rural to uran, greatly affected by trade decrease
- Great depression → trade barrier (US) → military-controlled government: 12-year plan → rise of
communism (violently repressed+ Anti-cominterm pact with Hitler (36)) - series of coups (31-36)
- Showa restoration → power in emperor, remove corruption → military intentionally divided.
- Struggle for power within military: Imperial Way Faction VS Control Faction (increase army influence
over government)
Foreign Instability: China
- Warlord era (1916-1928)
, - Zhang assassinated (28)
- Japan wanted weak and divided China
→ Manchurian incident (31)
- 4x Japan, low population, resources (90% Chinese oil)
- Bomb near railway, excuse to attack
Results: deteriorating relations with USA/UK → leave the LoN after Lytton Report
→ Japanese isulation → leave Washington Naval Agreement
→ Manchuko state + bombed Shanghai → treaty of Tanggu, but still control Manchuria (nationalism grows →
economic and public support)
→ 2nd Sino-Japanese War (37)
- Marco Polo Bridge incident → rape of Nanjing (extremely violent)
- 1941: complete military control of Japan → continue to capture european colonies in Asia, which don’t
respond because of WW2 involvement (necessary for Jap: running out of resources)
- 1940: Tripartite Axis Pact (Berlin Pact) → Germany/Italy europe domination, Japan asian domination
- 1941: Secure border with USSR: neutrality pact
- 1941: Pearl Harbor→ conflict with US regarding territory/trade (oil embargo) + went on to attack
colonies in Asia (Philippines etc.)
International Response to Japanese Agression
LoN responses
- Manchurian Crisis → China went to LoN → Lytton Report (1 year to arrive, Manchuko state, please
leave) → Japan rejects report and leave
→ Passive? France → colonies, would gain from weak China/Britain → no military means to resist +
lack of national interest (+ GD)
→ Impact: inspires other authoritarian leaders? Mussilini-Abyssinia/Hitler-Rhineland
Political Developments in China
- GMS more preoccupied about CCP than Japanes invasion BUT civil war temporarely halted
→ Second United Front (1937-1941) → Communist determination to fight Japanese get social support → WIN
USA:
- Stay out of international affairs → no means in pacific (GD + lack of national interest) → trade with Jap.
- Stimson Non-Recognition Doctrine (doesn’t recognize Jap. inv. in China)
- Neutrality Pacts (US isolatonism)
- 1938: more agressive → oil loans to China + trade agreements suspended in 1939.
Tripartite Pact:
→ Italy, Germany, Japan (40)
→ mainly propaganda, directed at US
b) German and Italian Expansion (1933-1940)
- Impact of fascism/nazism + expantionist foreign policy
→ From WW1-WW2 : political turmoil/failed revolutions
→ Semi-fascist governments in Spain and Portugal
→ Fascism a response from French Revolution/ Napolenic wars.
ITALY:
- Terra Irredenta → all Italians together
- Scramble for Africa: Eritrea (1882) / Ethiopia (1855) / Abyssinia (1895)
WW1/Peace Treaties:
- 1910: ANI (Italian Nationalists) formed (extreme)
- Italy not involved in war immediately (lack of national interest) + switched sides
- 1915: Treaty of London → switched sides to the Tripple Entente : promised to support Italy’s
territorial ambitions → dissapointed when don’t get Fiume/African colonies
Emergence of Nationalism/Fascism:
, - Mutilated victory → liberals blamed
- Il Popolo d’Italia (Mussolini’s newspaper)
- 1919: Fascio di Cobattimento
- 1921: National Fascist Party (PNF)
→ stressed commitment to strong government/patriotism and imperial expansionism for popular support
After emergence: consolidation of power and agressive foreign policy:
- Romanita movement → glory of Ancient Rome
- Corfu incident (1923) → Italian general murdured in Greece, ignored LoN, invaded (popularity boost
as national hero)
- “Il Duce”, propaganda, ideology in education.
- Spazio Vitale (expantionism)
BUT avoided agressive foreign policy up to 1933 (appease Britain and France + not strong enough)
GERMANY:
- State divided by religion
- Before WW1: create large modern army and use diplomacy as means of protection
WW1 and Peace Treaties:
- Versailles → extremely harsh terms/ not Wilson’s 14 points + diktat → imminent military invasion
→ war guilt clause, reparations, limited arms, territory, not LoN
→ november criminals → government blamed, resulting in loss of popular support (rise of nationalism/nazism)
Emergence of Nazism:
- Mein Kampf (1924) → Lebensraum (vs spaziovitale) + get rid of left/center → unline Italy, not aimed at
territorial expansion → resources.
→ agressive/expanionist foreign policy (resist USSR)
- 1919: Hitler joins worker’s party → use injustice at Versaille + advocate a great German Reign for
support
- 1923: March on Berlin (VS March on Rome) → failed → Beer Hall Putsch, after imprissoned
Economic Issues → Expansionism:
Italy:
WW1→ debt, inflation, unemployment
- North VS South (economy lower than European average) + division
→ GOAL: self-sufficient: create autarky, but in the end more disadvantages than advantages
- 1924: Battle to fight poverty
- 1925: Battle for grain
- 1926: Battle for land
- 1926: Battle for Lira
GD: horrible, increased push for autarky, economic weakness plays role in WW2.
Germany:
- Versailles → debt, inflation, unemployment
→ Rentenmark, Stressemann negotiates reparations
→ “Golden Years” → boom (1924)
GD: dependent on US loans → affected → promotes Nazi rise (desperate times call for desperate measures)
→ 1933: Hitler Chancellor → Nazi state
→ GOAL: establish German autarky
- Wehrwirtschaft (war economy) → prepare for war (Hitler gave economic priority to military
expansion/research development.
Collapse of Collective Security/Appeasement → German and Italian foreign policy
- Weakness of LoN
, → non-membership: USSR (fear of communism), Germany, US not there
German foreign policy:
→ World Disarmament Conference (32 → fails in 34), Germany leaves in 33
→ Mutual assistanc pact with France/Anglo-German Naval Treaty (35) → undermine Stresa Front
Italian foreign policy:
→ expansion from 22-33 (diplomatic approach though)
- Corfu (23), Fiume (1919), Locarno (1925), Kellogg-Briand pact (28), London Peace Conference (12)
→ 33-34 → not with LoN → allign with Hitler
- Rome-Berlin Axis (1936), Pact of Steel (1939)
- Timeline LoN Failures
→ Failed Anshluss (34)
→ Abyssinia (35) → Stresa front (Italy, France, Britain) collapses (Hoare-Laval plan although could just block
Suez)
→ Rhineland (36)
→ Cominterm Pact (Germany and Japan) (36)
→ Italy leaves LoN (37)
→ Spanish Civil War (36-39)
→ Manchuria (31-32)
→ Anshluss (38)
→ Munich Agreement (38) (Appeasement not a policy of the LoN)
- Economic crisis → states reluctant to apply economic sanctions → Hoare-Laval, Munich
(USSR/Czechoslovakia not present → Sudetenland to Germany)
→ Invasion of Czechoslovakia (39)
→ Nazi-Soviet Pact (39) → Opperation Barbaross (41)
- Phony War (1940)
→ from September 1939 to April 1940, after the blitzkrieg attack on Poland in September 1939l → nothing
happened.
→ Invasion of Poland yes, but little conflict in Western Europe → children evacuated returned to their families.
→ British ‘bombing’ raids over Germany – but not bombs: propaganda leaflets.
