Chapter 2: Social Research Strategies
Social research should be approached in its context, because:
1. Methods of social research are closely tied to different visions of how social reality
should be studied;
2. Research methods and practice connect with the wider social scientific enterprise.
Research is not always entirely dictated by theoretical concerns, other stimuli for research
may be a concern for a pressing social problem, the arising of a specific opportunity, or
personal experiences. However, research data achieve significance when viewed in relation
to theoretical concerns.
Theory and research
Theory is important for research because it provides a backcloth and a framework for the
research that is being conducted. The relationship between theory and research is difficult to
characterize because of two issues:
1. What type of theory are we talking about?
2. Are data collected to test or build theories?
What type of theory?
Theory = an explanation of observed regularities.
Two types of theories:
1. Theories of the middle range/middle-range theories. Operate in a limited domain,
vary in their range of application, fall in between grand theories and empirical
findings. They represent attempts to understand and explain a limited aspect of
social life.
2. Grand theories. High level of abstraction, connection to reality can be difficult to
find.
According to Merton grand theories are of limited use in connection with social research.
Middle-range theories are much more likely to be the focus of empirical enquiry.
In many cases, the relevant background literature relating to a topic fuels the focus of an
article or book and thereby acts as an equivalent of a theory. The literature in a certain
domain acts as the spur to an enquiry.
Empiricism = a general approach to the study of reality that suggests that only knowledge
gained through experience and the sense is acceptable (ideas must be subjected to the
rigours of testing before they can be considered knowledge). Second meaning: the belief
that the accumulation of ‘facts’ is a legitimate goal in its own right (naive empiricism).
Social scientists often dismiss research that has no obvious connection with theory as naive
empiricism, this is however often a bit too harsh.
,Deductive theory = the researcher, on the basis of theoretical considerations in the domain,
deduces a hypothesis that must then be subjected to accurate empirical research, i.e. theory
guides research. The social scientist must translate the concepts of the theory into
operational terms. This approach is usually associated with quantitative research.
Data Hypothesis Revision of
Theory Hypothesis Findings confirmed/rejected theory
collection
The steps
as indicated
above are best considered as a general orientation to the links between theory and research:
in many researches the deductive process is not that linear and clear.
Inductive theory = the process of induction involves drawing generalizable inferences out of
observations, i.e. theory is the outcome of research.
Note: deduction does entail an element of induction (revision of theory), this is also true the
other way around (more data collection to see if theory holds). This strategy is called
iterative: weaving back and forth between data and theory.
Epistemological considerations
Epistemological issue = the question of what is (or should be) regarded as acceptable
knowledge in a discipline. Issue that often comes up in this context: can and should the
social world be studied according to the same principles, procedures and ethos as the
natural sciences?
Positivism = epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods of the
natural sciences to the study of social reality and beyond. It entails the following principles:
1. Only phenomena and hence knowledge confirmed by the senses can genuinely be
warranted as knowledge (phenomenalism)
2. The purpuose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested and that will
thereby allow explanations of laws to be assessed (deductivism)
3. Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide the basis for laws
(inductivism)
, 4. Science must (and presumably can) be conducted in a way that is value free
(objective)
5. There is a clear distinction between scientific statements (the true domain of the
scientist) and normative statements (cannot be confirmed by the senses).
Realism = a belief that the natural and the social sciences can and should apply the same
kinds of approach to the collection of data and to explanation, and a commitment to the
view that there is an external reality that separate from our descriptions of it. Two forms:
Empirical realism = through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be
understood. Also referred to as naive realism to reflect the fact that it is often
assumed by realists that there is a perfect correspondence between reality and the
term used to describe it.
Critical realism = the scientist’s conceptualization of reality is simply a way of
knowing that reality.
- They acknowledge and accept that the categories they employ to understand
reality are likely to be provisional (i.e. there is a distinction between reality and the
terms used to describe it)
- They use theoretical terms (generative mechanisms) that are not directly
observable (because their effects are observable)
- An appreciation of context to shed light on the conditions that promote or impede
the operation of the causal mechanism
- Neither inductive nor deductive reasoning: retroductive reasoning (making an
inference about the causal mechanism that lies behind and is responsible for
regularities that are observed in the social world).
Interpretivism = contrasting epistemology to positivism of writers who share a view that the
subject of the social sciences is fundamentally different from that of the natural sciences,
and thus requires a different logic of research procedure. A strategy is required that respects
the differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences and therefore
requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action. Its intellectual
heritages includes:
Weber’s notion of Verstehen: sociology is a science which attempts the interpretive
understanding of social action in order to arrive at a causal explanation of its course
and effects
The hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition: a philosophy that is concerned with
the question of how individuals make sense of the world around them and how the
philosopher should bracket out preconceptions in his or her grasp of that world.
There is a fundamental difference between the subject matter of the natural sciences
and the social sciences and it is the job of the social scientist to gain access to
people’s ‘common-sense thinking’ and hence to interpret their actions and their
social world from their point of view (hermeneutics = the theory and method of the
interpretation of human action).
Symbolic interactionism: interaction takes place in such a way that the individual is
continually interpreting the symbolic meaning of his or her environment (which
includes the actions of others) and acts on the basis of this imputed meaning. The
position of symbolic interaction aims to catch the process of interpretation through
which actors construct their actions.
, One problem with interpretivism is that there are several levels of interpretation going on:
the researcher is providing an interpretation of others’ interpretations, and by placing these
into a social scientific frame these interpretations have to be further interpreted in terms of
the concepts, theories and literature of a discipline.
Ontological considerations
Ontology is concerned with the nature of social entities: can social entities be considered
objective entities with a reality external to social actors, of can they be considered social
constructions built up from the perceptions and actions of social actors?
Objectivism = an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings
have an existence that is independent of social actors. The social entity in question comes
across as something external to the actor and as having an almost tangible reality of its own:
it has the characteristics of an object and hence of having an objective reality.
Constructionism/constructivism = an ontological position that asserts that social
phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors. Social
phenomena and categories are not only produced through social interaction but they are in
a constant state of revision -> knowledge is indeterminate (postmodern). Also denotes that
the researcher always presents a specific version of social reality (researchers’ own accounts
of the social world are constructions). This point of view stresses the active role of
individuals in the social construction of social reality.
These two perspectives are mainly concerned with organization and culture. According to
constructionists, instead of seeing culture as an external reality that acts on and constrains
people (objectivism), it can be taken to be an emergent reality in a continuous state of
construction and reconstruction (constructionism). Constructionism also suggests that the
categories (e.g. ‘masculinity’) that people employ in helping them to understand the natural
and social world are in fact social products. The social world and its categories are not
external to us, but are built up and constituted in and through interaction (often seen in
discourse analysis).
Ontological assumptions and commitments feed into the ways in which research questions
are formulated and research is carried out.
Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research
Quantitative and qualitative research can be taken to form two distinctive clusters of
research strategy (research strategy = a general orientation to the conduct of social
research).
Quantitative research emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data:
Deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, emphasis on
testing of theories
Social research should be approached in its context, because:
1. Methods of social research are closely tied to different visions of how social reality
should be studied;
2. Research methods and practice connect with the wider social scientific enterprise.
Research is not always entirely dictated by theoretical concerns, other stimuli for research
may be a concern for a pressing social problem, the arising of a specific opportunity, or
personal experiences. However, research data achieve significance when viewed in relation
to theoretical concerns.
Theory and research
Theory is important for research because it provides a backcloth and a framework for the
research that is being conducted. The relationship between theory and research is difficult to
characterize because of two issues:
1. What type of theory are we talking about?
2. Are data collected to test or build theories?
What type of theory?
Theory = an explanation of observed regularities.
Two types of theories:
1. Theories of the middle range/middle-range theories. Operate in a limited domain,
vary in their range of application, fall in between grand theories and empirical
findings. They represent attempts to understand and explain a limited aspect of
social life.
2. Grand theories. High level of abstraction, connection to reality can be difficult to
find.
According to Merton grand theories are of limited use in connection with social research.
Middle-range theories are much more likely to be the focus of empirical enquiry.
In many cases, the relevant background literature relating to a topic fuels the focus of an
article or book and thereby acts as an equivalent of a theory. The literature in a certain
domain acts as the spur to an enquiry.
Empiricism = a general approach to the study of reality that suggests that only knowledge
gained through experience and the sense is acceptable (ideas must be subjected to the
rigours of testing before they can be considered knowledge). Second meaning: the belief
that the accumulation of ‘facts’ is a legitimate goal in its own right (naive empiricism).
Social scientists often dismiss research that has no obvious connection with theory as naive
empiricism, this is however often a bit too harsh.
,Deductive theory = the researcher, on the basis of theoretical considerations in the domain,
deduces a hypothesis that must then be subjected to accurate empirical research, i.e. theory
guides research. The social scientist must translate the concepts of the theory into
operational terms. This approach is usually associated with quantitative research.
Data Hypothesis Revision of
Theory Hypothesis Findings confirmed/rejected theory
collection
The steps
as indicated
above are best considered as a general orientation to the links between theory and research:
in many researches the deductive process is not that linear and clear.
Inductive theory = the process of induction involves drawing generalizable inferences out of
observations, i.e. theory is the outcome of research.
Note: deduction does entail an element of induction (revision of theory), this is also true the
other way around (more data collection to see if theory holds). This strategy is called
iterative: weaving back and forth between data and theory.
Epistemological considerations
Epistemological issue = the question of what is (or should be) regarded as acceptable
knowledge in a discipline. Issue that often comes up in this context: can and should the
social world be studied according to the same principles, procedures and ethos as the
natural sciences?
Positivism = epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods of the
natural sciences to the study of social reality and beyond. It entails the following principles:
1. Only phenomena and hence knowledge confirmed by the senses can genuinely be
warranted as knowledge (phenomenalism)
2. The purpuose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested and that will
thereby allow explanations of laws to be assessed (deductivism)
3. Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide the basis for laws
(inductivism)
, 4. Science must (and presumably can) be conducted in a way that is value free
(objective)
5. There is a clear distinction between scientific statements (the true domain of the
scientist) and normative statements (cannot be confirmed by the senses).
Realism = a belief that the natural and the social sciences can and should apply the same
kinds of approach to the collection of data and to explanation, and a commitment to the
view that there is an external reality that separate from our descriptions of it. Two forms:
Empirical realism = through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be
understood. Also referred to as naive realism to reflect the fact that it is often
assumed by realists that there is a perfect correspondence between reality and the
term used to describe it.
Critical realism = the scientist’s conceptualization of reality is simply a way of
knowing that reality.
- They acknowledge and accept that the categories they employ to understand
reality are likely to be provisional (i.e. there is a distinction between reality and the
terms used to describe it)
- They use theoretical terms (generative mechanisms) that are not directly
observable (because their effects are observable)
- An appreciation of context to shed light on the conditions that promote or impede
the operation of the causal mechanism
- Neither inductive nor deductive reasoning: retroductive reasoning (making an
inference about the causal mechanism that lies behind and is responsible for
regularities that are observed in the social world).
Interpretivism = contrasting epistemology to positivism of writers who share a view that the
subject of the social sciences is fundamentally different from that of the natural sciences,
and thus requires a different logic of research procedure. A strategy is required that respects
the differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences and therefore
requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action. Its intellectual
heritages includes:
Weber’s notion of Verstehen: sociology is a science which attempts the interpretive
understanding of social action in order to arrive at a causal explanation of its course
and effects
The hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition: a philosophy that is concerned with
the question of how individuals make sense of the world around them and how the
philosopher should bracket out preconceptions in his or her grasp of that world.
There is a fundamental difference between the subject matter of the natural sciences
and the social sciences and it is the job of the social scientist to gain access to
people’s ‘common-sense thinking’ and hence to interpret their actions and their
social world from their point of view (hermeneutics = the theory and method of the
interpretation of human action).
Symbolic interactionism: interaction takes place in such a way that the individual is
continually interpreting the symbolic meaning of his or her environment (which
includes the actions of others) and acts on the basis of this imputed meaning. The
position of symbolic interaction aims to catch the process of interpretation through
which actors construct their actions.
, One problem with interpretivism is that there are several levels of interpretation going on:
the researcher is providing an interpretation of others’ interpretations, and by placing these
into a social scientific frame these interpretations have to be further interpreted in terms of
the concepts, theories and literature of a discipline.
Ontological considerations
Ontology is concerned with the nature of social entities: can social entities be considered
objective entities with a reality external to social actors, of can they be considered social
constructions built up from the perceptions and actions of social actors?
Objectivism = an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings
have an existence that is independent of social actors. The social entity in question comes
across as something external to the actor and as having an almost tangible reality of its own:
it has the characteristics of an object and hence of having an objective reality.
Constructionism/constructivism = an ontological position that asserts that social
phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors. Social
phenomena and categories are not only produced through social interaction but they are in
a constant state of revision -> knowledge is indeterminate (postmodern). Also denotes that
the researcher always presents a specific version of social reality (researchers’ own accounts
of the social world are constructions). This point of view stresses the active role of
individuals in the social construction of social reality.
These two perspectives are mainly concerned with organization and culture. According to
constructionists, instead of seeing culture as an external reality that acts on and constrains
people (objectivism), it can be taken to be an emergent reality in a continuous state of
construction and reconstruction (constructionism). Constructionism also suggests that the
categories (e.g. ‘masculinity’) that people employ in helping them to understand the natural
and social world are in fact social products. The social world and its categories are not
external to us, but are built up and constituted in and through interaction (often seen in
discourse analysis).
Ontological assumptions and commitments feed into the ways in which research questions
are formulated and research is carried out.
Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research
Quantitative and qualitative research can be taken to form two distinctive clusters of
research strategy (research strategy = a general orientation to the conduct of social
research).
Quantitative research emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data:
Deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, emphasis on
testing of theories
