Psychology 16
Mark Plans
1
,Paper 3
Issues and debates
Question: Discuss gender bias in psychology.
AO1: • Gender bias --> difference of treatment or representation of males
6 and females based on stereotypes rather than any real evidence.
There are two types of gender bias: alpha and beta.
- Alpha bias --> when the differences between males and females are
exaggerated. An example is Freud’s psychodynamic theory, which
suggests females do not experience the Oedipus complex due to being
inferior to men and the idea of ‘failed masculinity’. This is
because they experience penis envy and cannot fully develop their
superego because of the lack of Oedipus complex. Women are morally
inferior as they have a weaker identification with their mothers.
- Beta bias --> potential differences between genders are ignored or
minimised. An example is Asch’s conformity study. All participants
were male, and Asch assumed men and women would respond in the same
way.
- Beta bias can lead to androcentrism which says male psychology and
behaviours are seen as default and normal. Any other behaviour that
deviates from the standard is abnormal. As a result, female
behaviour may end up being pathologized. An example is the pre-
menstrual syndrome (PSM), a social construct that medicates female
emotions by reducing them to hormonal explanations.
- Universality --> aims to develop theories that apply to all people
which may include real differences.
AO3: • Psychological theories are gender biased because the methodology is
10 biased
- Rosenthal (1966) found male experimenters are more pleasant,
friendly, and encouraging towards female participants than to male
participants. This resulted in male participants to perform less
well on the tasks assigned. Furthermore, feminists argue lab
experiments disadvantages women because findings created in a
controlled lab tell us very little about the experiences of women
outside these settings. This suggests there are issues with the way
data is collected which creates a false picture of male-female
differences.
• Led to feminist psychology as a way to counter gender bias
- Feminist psychology agrees there are biological differences between
men and women and finds a way to readdress the imbalance in
research. An example is Eagly’s study which acknowledges that women
may be less effective leaders than men, however this information
should be used to develop training courses for them to be better.
This bias has led to effective applications to counter the bias.
• Sexism within the research process
- There is a low proportion of female researchers at a senior
research level which means there is a risk of failing to address
concerns raised by gender biased research. Male researchers are
likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence
of gender differences are likely to be published than those that do
not. Gender differences are exaggerated (reinforces alpha bias)
making it more difficult to challenge gender stereotypes that
result from gender bias.
• Contemporary studies have looked for ways to reduce gender bias
2
,- Some psychologists have attempted to develop theories that
emphasise the importance and value of women. For example, Cornwell
et al. (2013) noted that females are better at learning as they’re
more attentive and organised, emphasising the value and positive
attributes of women. Research like this helps to reduce and
challenge gender stereotypes which is important in reducing gender
bias.
3
, Question: Discuss cultural bias in psychology.
AO1: • Cultural bias --> refers to the tendency to ignore cultural
6 differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s
own culture. There are two types of cultural bias: alpha and beta.
- Alpha bias --> theory assumes that cultural groups are more
different than they are (overexaggerates the differences). Research
argues that some cultures are superior to others.
- Alpha bias leads to ethnocentrism in which a researcher will judge
other cultures by the standards and values of their own culture. An
example is Ainsworth’s strange situation, she only reflected the
norms and values of American culture as ‘secure attachments’ in
infants is seen as ideal. This had led to mothers in Germany to be
seen as cold and rejecting based on the strange situation when
reality this is the way this culture rears children.
- Beta bias --> theory minimises/ ignores the differences between
cultures. An example is IQ testing where results from ethnocentrism
where it was believed it was appropriate to use IQ tests all over
the world. The assumption was that the American standard was
universal.
- Cultural relativism --> helps to avoid cultural bias as
psychologists can recognise the facts, they discover can only be
meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural
contexts.
- Psychology has been criticised for using an ETIC approach (Berry,
1969) where it looks at behaviour outside a culture and tries to
explain universal behaviour. Whereas the theories come from an EMIC
approach where functions within a certain culture (e.g. western)
are applied to other cultures (e.g. non-western). An example of an
imposed ETIC is Ainsworth’s research as she imposed her own
cultural values and beliefs upon the world.
AO3: • Psychological research recognises cultural relativism and
10 universality
- Ekman’s research suggests basic facial expressions for emotions are
the same for all humans. People who criticise Ainsworth for being
culturally biased should consider some attachments which are
universal such as synchrony and imitation. This leads to a better
understanding of human behaviour which requires both universal and
variation within groups and individuals.
• Awareness of cultural diversity has led to the development of
‘indigenous psychologies’
- These are theories based on experiences of people in different
cultural contexts and had led to the emergency of theories more
relevant to the lives and cultures of people not only from America.
An example is Afrocentrism, which suggests that because all black
people have their roots in Africa; theories must recognise African
context of behaviours and attitudes. This idea considers the
importance of cultural relativism to fully understand behaviour.
• Bias in research methods
- Cultural bias in psychology can be dealt with by using studies with
samples from different cultural groups. However, at the end of the
last century that was not the case. Smith and Bond (1998) surveyed
research in a European textbook on social psychology. They found
66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest
of the world. This suggests that the majority of psychological
research is unrepresentative and lacks universality.
• No longer the issue of individualism and collectivism in research
- Takano and Osaka (1999) found from 14/15 studies which compared
Japan and USA there was no evidence of distinction between the
4
Mark Plans
1
,Paper 3
Issues and debates
Question: Discuss gender bias in psychology.
AO1: • Gender bias --> difference of treatment or representation of males
6 and females based on stereotypes rather than any real evidence.
There are two types of gender bias: alpha and beta.
- Alpha bias --> when the differences between males and females are
exaggerated. An example is Freud’s psychodynamic theory, which
suggests females do not experience the Oedipus complex due to being
inferior to men and the idea of ‘failed masculinity’. This is
because they experience penis envy and cannot fully develop their
superego because of the lack of Oedipus complex. Women are morally
inferior as they have a weaker identification with their mothers.
- Beta bias --> potential differences between genders are ignored or
minimised. An example is Asch’s conformity study. All participants
were male, and Asch assumed men and women would respond in the same
way.
- Beta bias can lead to androcentrism which says male psychology and
behaviours are seen as default and normal. Any other behaviour that
deviates from the standard is abnormal. As a result, female
behaviour may end up being pathologized. An example is the pre-
menstrual syndrome (PSM), a social construct that medicates female
emotions by reducing them to hormonal explanations.
- Universality --> aims to develop theories that apply to all people
which may include real differences.
AO3: • Psychological theories are gender biased because the methodology is
10 biased
- Rosenthal (1966) found male experimenters are more pleasant,
friendly, and encouraging towards female participants than to male
participants. This resulted in male participants to perform less
well on the tasks assigned. Furthermore, feminists argue lab
experiments disadvantages women because findings created in a
controlled lab tell us very little about the experiences of women
outside these settings. This suggests there are issues with the way
data is collected which creates a false picture of male-female
differences.
• Led to feminist psychology as a way to counter gender bias
- Feminist psychology agrees there are biological differences between
men and women and finds a way to readdress the imbalance in
research. An example is Eagly’s study which acknowledges that women
may be less effective leaders than men, however this information
should be used to develop training courses for them to be better.
This bias has led to effective applications to counter the bias.
• Sexism within the research process
- There is a low proportion of female researchers at a senior
research level which means there is a risk of failing to address
concerns raised by gender biased research. Male researchers are
likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence
of gender differences are likely to be published than those that do
not. Gender differences are exaggerated (reinforces alpha bias)
making it more difficult to challenge gender stereotypes that
result from gender bias.
• Contemporary studies have looked for ways to reduce gender bias
2
,- Some psychologists have attempted to develop theories that
emphasise the importance and value of women. For example, Cornwell
et al. (2013) noted that females are better at learning as they’re
more attentive and organised, emphasising the value and positive
attributes of women. Research like this helps to reduce and
challenge gender stereotypes which is important in reducing gender
bias.
3
, Question: Discuss cultural bias in psychology.
AO1: • Cultural bias --> refers to the tendency to ignore cultural
6 differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s
own culture. There are two types of cultural bias: alpha and beta.
- Alpha bias --> theory assumes that cultural groups are more
different than they are (overexaggerates the differences). Research
argues that some cultures are superior to others.
- Alpha bias leads to ethnocentrism in which a researcher will judge
other cultures by the standards and values of their own culture. An
example is Ainsworth’s strange situation, she only reflected the
norms and values of American culture as ‘secure attachments’ in
infants is seen as ideal. This had led to mothers in Germany to be
seen as cold and rejecting based on the strange situation when
reality this is the way this culture rears children.
- Beta bias --> theory minimises/ ignores the differences between
cultures. An example is IQ testing where results from ethnocentrism
where it was believed it was appropriate to use IQ tests all over
the world. The assumption was that the American standard was
universal.
- Cultural relativism --> helps to avoid cultural bias as
psychologists can recognise the facts, they discover can only be
meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural
contexts.
- Psychology has been criticised for using an ETIC approach (Berry,
1969) where it looks at behaviour outside a culture and tries to
explain universal behaviour. Whereas the theories come from an EMIC
approach where functions within a certain culture (e.g. western)
are applied to other cultures (e.g. non-western). An example of an
imposed ETIC is Ainsworth’s research as she imposed her own
cultural values and beliefs upon the world.
AO3: • Psychological research recognises cultural relativism and
10 universality
- Ekman’s research suggests basic facial expressions for emotions are
the same for all humans. People who criticise Ainsworth for being
culturally biased should consider some attachments which are
universal such as synchrony and imitation. This leads to a better
understanding of human behaviour which requires both universal and
variation within groups and individuals.
• Awareness of cultural diversity has led to the development of
‘indigenous psychologies’
- These are theories based on experiences of people in different
cultural contexts and had led to the emergency of theories more
relevant to the lives and cultures of people not only from America.
An example is Afrocentrism, which suggests that because all black
people have their roots in Africa; theories must recognise African
context of behaviours and attitudes. This idea considers the
importance of cultural relativism to fully understand behaviour.
• Bias in research methods
- Cultural bias in psychology can be dealt with by using studies with
samples from different cultural groups. However, at the end of the
last century that was not the case. Smith and Bond (1998) surveyed
research in a European textbook on social psychology. They found
66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest
of the world. This suggests that the majority of psychological
research is unrepresentative and lacks universality.
• No longer the issue of individualism and collectivism in research
- Takano and Osaka (1999) found from 14/15 studies which compared
Japan and USA there was no evidence of distinction between the
4
