Impact of question presence and interactivity in instructional videos
on student learning*
Ruiqi Deng 1,2, Yi Yang2, Suqin Shen 3
Abstract
Empirical evidence has consistently shown that interactive questions are an effective
strategy for strengthening student learning through instructional videos. However,
research has not directly addressed the crucial question of whether the beneficial
effects of interactive questions in instructional videos are attributable to the presence
of questions, or whether they result from a combination of question presence and
computer-paced interactivity. This question is important for understanding the
mechanisms by which interactive questions work and holds practical significance for
instructors’ selection of suitable video formats for student learning. To fill this
research gap, this study conducted a quasi-experiment with pre-test post-test design to
determine the effects of question presence and interactivity on university students’
cognitive load, emotional engagement, video view counts, and cognitive learning
outcomes. Three discrete classes were randomly assigned to one of three experimental
conditions: videos with questions (Experimental Group 1, n = 39), videos with
interactive questions (Experimental Group 2, n = 35), and videos without questions
(Control Group, n = 35). Age, gender, motivation, and actual and perceived prior
knowledge were controlled in the experiment. The findings revealed that (a) question
presence in traditional linear videos conferred beneficial effects on germane cognitive
load, emotional engagement, knowledge acquisition, and knowledge application; (b)
question interactivity did not offer additional advantages in reinforcing knowledge
acquisition or application compared with question presence alone; and (c) question
presence or interactivity exerted no significant effect on video view counts. This study
has practical implications for instructors seeking to develop effective instructional
videos.
Keywords: instructional video, interactive video, interactivity, multimedia learning
1. Introduction
A growing body of research has revealed the pedagogical benefits of incorporating
interactivity strategies into instructional videos, both in blended (McClellan et al.,
* The published journal article is accessible at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12862-1
1 Chinese Education Modernization Research Institute (Zhejiang Provincial Key Think
Tank), Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
2 Jing Hengyi School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
3 School of Management, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
1
,2023; Yürüm et al., 2022) and online learning contexts (Rizvi et al., 2023). Clickable
hotspots, annotation tools, and navigation panels are typical examples of interactivity
strategies that seek to prompt learners to actively engage with instructional video
content (Damasceno et al., 2020). Meta-analysis has revealed that learning from
videos containing interactivity strategies is generally more effective than learning
from videos without such strategies (Ploetzner, 2022). Notably, the last decade has
witnessed a growing interest in the application (Esnaashari et al., 2023; Fidan, 2023)
and evaluation (Wong et al., 2023) of interactive questions as a strategy to enhance
student learning from instructional videos. The effectiveness of interactive questions
in reinforcing student performance is consistent with empirical evidence (Kestin &
Miller, 2022; Polat & Taslibeyaz, 2023; Pulukuri & Abrams, 2021). However,
previous research has not investigated whether the positive effect of interactive
questions arises solely from the questions themselves, or whether it is enhanced when
combined with computer-paced interactivity. This knowledge gap provides the
impetus for this study. Separating the effects of question presence and interactivity on
student learning not only provides insight into the working mechanism of interactive
questions but also offers practical implications for instructors to select appropriate
video formats for planning teaching and learning activities (Doğru et al., 2023; Torres
et al., 2022). This study addresses the overarching research question: how do the
presence and interactivity of questions in instructional videos affect student learning?
To tackle this research question, four key aspects of student learning were considered:
cognitive load, emotional engagement, video view counts, and cognitive learning
outcomes. Cognitive load refers to the mental effort exerted in information processing
and plays a pivotal role in the development of multimedia learning content as well as
the optimisation of student learning (Mutlu-Bayraktar et al., 2019). Emotional
engagement pertains to the extent of affective connection and involvement
demonstrated by learners while interacting with the instructional content presented in
the video (Dubovi, 2022). Video view counts refer to the number of times a video
resource has been accessed by learners and often serve as a proxy of student
interaction with video content (Giannakos et al., 2015; Sato et al., 2022; Wong et al.,
2019). Cognitive learning outcomes indicate the specific types of knowledge and
skills learners acquire or develop through their engagement with video content,
encompassing aspects such as knowledge acquisition and application (Shi et al.,
2020). Investigating the impact of question presence and interactivity on these four
elements will yield a thorough comprehension of their effects on the processes and
outcomes of video-based student learning.
2. Literature review
2.1 Potential and design of interactive videos for active learning
Interactive videos (Bakla & Mehdiyev, 2022), also known as hypervideos (Evi‐
Colombo et al., 2022) and enhanced videos (Delen et al., 2014), are perceived as a
2
,promising strategy to transform passive viewing into active learning participation.
Interactive videos often contain features of traditional instructional videos, such as
dynamic audiovisual information presentations and a navigation toolbar with play,
pause, and stop buttons (Shelton et al., 2016). In addition, interactive videos are
characterised by nonlinear information structuring and advanced participatory features
such as clickable hotspots, textboxes for reflection, and interactive questions, which
are designed to promote deeper reflection on video content and help students self-
regulate their learning (Chen et al., 2021; Deng et al., 2023; Palaigeorgiou &
Papadopoulou, 2019). The design of the interactive videos is based on active learning
pedagogy and generative learning theories. Dodson et al. (2018) contended that
instructional videos are more effective when learners are active viewers who engage
with video content and that mechanisms should be designed to provide affordances
for active and constructive behaviours. Similarly, Mayer et al. (2020) maintained that
students learn better from instructional videos when they engage in generative
learning activities that require actively integrating new concepts with preexisting
knowledge frameworks, such as learning by self-testing.
Researchers have conducted various educational interventions to transform passive
video viewing into active information processing (e.g. Ruf et al., 2023). Despite their
innovation, interactive videos do not guarantee improved learning processes or
outcomes. Biard et al. (2018) found that incorporating computer-paced segmentation
into instructional videos designed to enhance students’ acquisition of procedural
knowledge did not improve recall performance. Pimentel et al. (2019) reported that
adding an interactive timeline highlighting points of interest in videos was not an
effective reinforcement for learning. Kosmaca and Siiman (2023) revealed that
providing navigation hotspots in videos does not facilitate student collaboration.
Interactive questions have attracted increasing scholarly attention as a potentially
effective interactivity strategy. A growing number of university lecturers and
instructors are incorporating this strategy into instructional videos to strengthen
student performance (e.g. Fidan, 2023; Getenet & Tualaulelei, 2023).
2.2 Interactive questions as a promising interactivity strategy
Interactive questions (Wachtler et al., 2016) are also known as embedded questions
(Pabst et al., 2023), embedded quizzes (Jones et al., 2021), integrated questions (Rose
et al., 2016), interpolated questions (Risko et al., 2023), video quizzes (Mashtare et
al., 2021), and pop-up questions (Haagsman et al., 2020). To provide conceptual
clarity, this study operationally defines interactive questions as an interactivity
strategy incorporated into videos that elicit students’ cognitive responses and require
them to manually input answers into the video interface. Cross-sectional studies have
shown that students engage heavily in interactive questions (Cummins et al., 2016),
and that in-video dropout is lower in instructional videos containing such questions
(Kovacs, 2016). Students tend to prefer interactive questions embedded in videos
rather than subsequent quizzes (Ketsman et al., 2018). Moreover, experimental (van
der Meij & Bӧckmann, 2020) and quasi-experimental studies (Haagsman et al., 2020)
3
, have compared the effectiveness of interactive videos to traditional linear videos.
Evidence generally supports the notion that interactive questions have a significant
positive effect on academic achievement. Most of these studies were conducted in the
higher education context and recruited college students as research subjects (Doğru et
al., 2023; Yang et al., 2021). The topics of video materials range widely, from
computer literacy (Vural, 2013) to sustainability (Shelton et al., 2016), marketing
(Rice et al., 2019), chemistry (Pulukuri & Abrams, 2021), and physics (Kestin &
Miller, 2022).
Interactivity is considered to play a pivotal role in the effectiveness of videos in
facilitating learning (Schroeder et al., 2023); however, there is no uniform definition
of interactivity in the context of video-based learning. Evans and Sabry (2003)
proposed a Three-Way Model of Interactivity and theorised that student-content
interaction in web-based learning systems involves a sequence of three related
actions: initiation, response, and feedback. Initiation involves the digital learning
environment inviting input from the learner; response involves the learner providing
the input; and feedback involves the environment returning information about the
learner’s response. It is arguable that interactive questions incorporate all three
actions: the video is programmed to pause and display a question on the screen
(initiation); learners are required to submit an answer to the question (response); and
instant feedback is provided to learners after manual input of information (feedback).
While Evans and Sabry (2003) focused on learners’ behavioural interactions with the
digital learning environment, Kennedy (2004) argued that the cognitive process of
students is central to theorising multimedia-based interactivity and proposed a
Cognitive Interaction Model of Multimedia Interactivity that distinguishes functional
interactivity (actions and behaviour) from cognitive interactivity (cognitive and
metacognitive processes). He maintained that the value of interactivity cannot be
determined solely by assessing the functional interactivity of the interface, as it
merely mediates the relationship between instructional content and cognitive
interactivity. Wouters et al. (2007) concurred with Kennedy (2004) that cognitive
interactivity should be prioritised when providing learners with interactivity, a
reciprocal communication relationship between learners and digital instructional
content that promotes beneficial cognitive processes in learners.
2.3 Research questions
Existing studies have compared the effectiveness of traditional linear videos with
those that incorporate interactive questions, and the results are generally in favour of
the latter (e.g. Polat & Taslibeyaz, 2023; Shelton et al., 2016). Cummins et al. (2016,
p. 57), for example, explicitly recommend that ‘in-video quizzes be used to increase
the interactivity of video content’. However, previous research has not investigated
whether the positive effect of interactive questions arises solely from the questions
themselves, or whether it is enhanced when combined with interactivity. It is unclear
whether the interactivity of the presented questions serves as functional interactivity
(Evans & Sabry, 2003) or facilitates cognitive interactivity (Kennedy, 2004). This
4
on student learning*
Ruiqi Deng 1,2, Yi Yang2, Suqin Shen 3
Abstract
Empirical evidence has consistently shown that interactive questions are an effective
strategy for strengthening student learning through instructional videos. However,
research has not directly addressed the crucial question of whether the beneficial
effects of interactive questions in instructional videos are attributable to the presence
of questions, or whether they result from a combination of question presence and
computer-paced interactivity. This question is important for understanding the
mechanisms by which interactive questions work and holds practical significance for
instructors’ selection of suitable video formats for student learning. To fill this
research gap, this study conducted a quasi-experiment with pre-test post-test design to
determine the effects of question presence and interactivity on university students’
cognitive load, emotional engagement, video view counts, and cognitive learning
outcomes. Three discrete classes were randomly assigned to one of three experimental
conditions: videos with questions (Experimental Group 1, n = 39), videos with
interactive questions (Experimental Group 2, n = 35), and videos without questions
(Control Group, n = 35). Age, gender, motivation, and actual and perceived prior
knowledge were controlled in the experiment. The findings revealed that (a) question
presence in traditional linear videos conferred beneficial effects on germane cognitive
load, emotional engagement, knowledge acquisition, and knowledge application; (b)
question interactivity did not offer additional advantages in reinforcing knowledge
acquisition or application compared with question presence alone; and (c) question
presence or interactivity exerted no significant effect on video view counts. This study
has practical implications for instructors seeking to develop effective instructional
videos.
Keywords: instructional video, interactive video, interactivity, multimedia learning
1. Introduction
A growing body of research has revealed the pedagogical benefits of incorporating
interactivity strategies into instructional videos, both in blended (McClellan et al.,
* The published journal article is accessible at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12862-1
1 Chinese Education Modernization Research Institute (Zhejiang Provincial Key Think
Tank), Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
2 Jing Hengyi School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
3 School of Management, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
1
,2023; Yürüm et al., 2022) and online learning contexts (Rizvi et al., 2023). Clickable
hotspots, annotation tools, and navigation panels are typical examples of interactivity
strategies that seek to prompt learners to actively engage with instructional video
content (Damasceno et al., 2020). Meta-analysis has revealed that learning from
videos containing interactivity strategies is generally more effective than learning
from videos without such strategies (Ploetzner, 2022). Notably, the last decade has
witnessed a growing interest in the application (Esnaashari et al., 2023; Fidan, 2023)
and evaluation (Wong et al., 2023) of interactive questions as a strategy to enhance
student learning from instructional videos. The effectiveness of interactive questions
in reinforcing student performance is consistent with empirical evidence (Kestin &
Miller, 2022; Polat & Taslibeyaz, 2023; Pulukuri & Abrams, 2021). However,
previous research has not investigated whether the positive effect of interactive
questions arises solely from the questions themselves, or whether it is enhanced when
combined with computer-paced interactivity. This knowledge gap provides the
impetus for this study. Separating the effects of question presence and interactivity on
student learning not only provides insight into the working mechanism of interactive
questions but also offers practical implications for instructors to select appropriate
video formats for planning teaching and learning activities (Doğru et al., 2023; Torres
et al., 2022). This study addresses the overarching research question: how do the
presence and interactivity of questions in instructional videos affect student learning?
To tackle this research question, four key aspects of student learning were considered:
cognitive load, emotional engagement, video view counts, and cognitive learning
outcomes. Cognitive load refers to the mental effort exerted in information processing
and plays a pivotal role in the development of multimedia learning content as well as
the optimisation of student learning (Mutlu-Bayraktar et al., 2019). Emotional
engagement pertains to the extent of affective connection and involvement
demonstrated by learners while interacting with the instructional content presented in
the video (Dubovi, 2022). Video view counts refer to the number of times a video
resource has been accessed by learners and often serve as a proxy of student
interaction with video content (Giannakos et al., 2015; Sato et al., 2022; Wong et al.,
2019). Cognitive learning outcomes indicate the specific types of knowledge and
skills learners acquire or develop through their engagement with video content,
encompassing aspects such as knowledge acquisition and application (Shi et al.,
2020). Investigating the impact of question presence and interactivity on these four
elements will yield a thorough comprehension of their effects on the processes and
outcomes of video-based student learning.
2. Literature review
2.1 Potential and design of interactive videos for active learning
Interactive videos (Bakla & Mehdiyev, 2022), also known as hypervideos (Evi‐
Colombo et al., 2022) and enhanced videos (Delen et al., 2014), are perceived as a
2
,promising strategy to transform passive viewing into active learning participation.
Interactive videos often contain features of traditional instructional videos, such as
dynamic audiovisual information presentations and a navigation toolbar with play,
pause, and stop buttons (Shelton et al., 2016). In addition, interactive videos are
characterised by nonlinear information structuring and advanced participatory features
such as clickable hotspots, textboxes for reflection, and interactive questions, which
are designed to promote deeper reflection on video content and help students self-
regulate their learning (Chen et al., 2021; Deng et al., 2023; Palaigeorgiou &
Papadopoulou, 2019). The design of the interactive videos is based on active learning
pedagogy and generative learning theories. Dodson et al. (2018) contended that
instructional videos are more effective when learners are active viewers who engage
with video content and that mechanisms should be designed to provide affordances
for active and constructive behaviours. Similarly, Mayer et al. (2020) maintained that
students learn better from instructional videos when they engage in generative
learning activities that require actively integrating new concepts with preexisting
knowledge frameworks, such as learning by self-testing.
Researchers have conducted various educational interventions to transform passive
video viewing into active information processing (e.g. Ruf et al., 2023). Despite their
innovation, interactive videos do not guarantee improved learning processes or
outcomes. Biard et al. (2018) found that incorporating computer-paced segmentation
into instructional videos designed to enhance students’ acquisition of procedural
knowledge did not improve recall performance. Pimentel et al. (2019) reported that
adding an interactive timeline highlighting points of interest in videos was not an
effective reinforcement for learning. Kosmaca and Siiman (2023) revealed that
providing navigation hotspots in videos does not facilitate student collaboration.
Interactive questions have attracted increasing scholarly attention as a potentially
effective interactivity strategy. A growing number of university lecturers and
instructors are incorporating this strategy into instructional videos to strengthen
student performance (e.g. Fidan, 2023; Getenet & Tualaulelei, 2023).
2.2 Interactive questions as a promising interactivity strategy
Interactive questions (Wachtler et al., 2016) are also known as embedded questions
(Pabst et al., 2023), embedded quizzes (Jones et al., 2021), integrated questions (Rose
et al., 2016), interpolated questions (Risko et al., 2023), video quizzes (Mashtare et
al., 2021), and pop-up questions (Haagsman et al., 2020). To provide conceptual
clarity, this study operationally defines interactive questions as an interactivity
strategy incorporated into videos that elicit students’ cognitive responses and require
them to manually input answers into the video interface. Cross-sectional studies have
shown that students engage heavily in interactive questions (Cummins et al., 2016),
and that in-video dropout is lower in instructional videos containing such questions
(Kovacs, 2016). Students tend to prefer interactive questions embedded in videos
rather than subsequent quizzes (Ketsman et al., 2018). Moreover, experimental (van
der Meij & Bӧckmann, 2020) and quasi-experimental studies (Haagsman et al., 2020)
3
, have compared the effectiveness of interactive videos to traditional linear videos.
Evidence generally supports the notion that interactive questions have a significant
positive effect on academic achievement. Most of these studies were conducted in the
higher education context and recruited college students as research subjects (Doğru et
al., 2023; Yang et al., 2021). The topics of video materials range widely, from
computer literacy (Vural, 2013) to sustainability (Shelton et al., 2016), marketing
(Rice et al., 2019), chemistry (Pulukuri & Abrams, 2021), and physics (Kestin &
Miller, 2022).
Interactivity is considered to play a pivotal role in the effectiveness of videos in
facilitating learning (Schroeder et al., 2023); however, there is no uniform definition
of interactivity in the context of video-based learning. Evans and Sabry (2003)
proposed a Three-Way Model of Interactivity and theorised that student-content
interaction in web-based learning systems involves a sequence of three related
actions: initiation, response, and feedback. Initiation involves the digital learning
environment inviting input from the learner; response involves the learner providing
the input; and feedback involves the environment returning information about the
learner’s response. It is arguable that interactive questions incorporate all three
actions: the video is programmed to pause and display a question on the screen
(initiation); learners are required to submit an answer to the question (response); and
instant feedback is provided to learners after manual input of information (feedback).
While Evans and Sabry (2003) focused on learners’ behavioural interactions with the
digital learning environment, Kennedy (2004) argued that the cognitive process of
students is central to theorising multimedia-based interactivity and proposed a
Cognitive Interaction Model of Multimedia Interactivity that distinguishes functional
interactivity (actions and behaviour) from cognitive interactivity (cognitive and
metacognitive processes). He maintained that the value of interactivity cannot be
determined solely by assessing the functional interactivity of the interface, as it
merely mediates the relationship between instructional content and cognitive
interactivity. Wouters et al. (2007) concurred with Kennedy (2004) that cognitive
interactivity should be prioritised when providing learners with interactivity, a
reciprocal communication relationship between learners and digital instructional
content that promotes beneficial cognitive processes in learners.
2.3 Research questions
Existing studies have compared the effectiveness of traditional linear videos with
those that incorporate interactive questions, and the results are generally in favour of
the latter (e.g. Polat & Taslibeyaz, 2023; Shelton et al., 2016). Cummins et al. (2016,
p. 57), for example, explicitly recommend that ‘in-video quizzes be used to increase
the interactivity of video content’. However, previous research has not investigated
whether the positive effect of interactive questions arises solely from the questions
themselves, or whether it is enhanced when combined with interactivity. It is unclear
whether the interactivity of the presented questions serves as functional interactivity
(Evans & Sabry, 2003) or facilitates cognitive interactivity (Kennedy, 2004). This
4
