Skill Acquisition
Skill Classification
Motor/movement skill = An action or task that has a goal and that requires voluntary
body movement and/or limb movement to achieve the goal.
Difficulty
Simple – Straightforward skill without many decisions to make. E.g. Start in
swimming.
Complex – Harder skill, where lots of decisions must be made. E.g. a catch in
slip at cricket.
Environmental influence
Open – affected by the environment (externally paced). E.g. a pass in football
Closed – Not affected by the environment (self-paced). E.g. Basketball free
throw.
Pacing
Self-paced – The performer controls the rate at which the skill is executed. Any
serves. E.g. javelin
Externally-paced – The environment (e.g. opponent) controls the rate at
performing the skill. E.g. receiving a serve in badminton
Muscular involvement
Gross (power) – Involves large muscle movements. Power over precision. E.g.
shotput, rugby tackle
Fine – Involves more intricate movements. Often needs coordination. E.g.
snooker shot, dart throw.
Organisation
High organisation – The skill has subroutines that are difficult to separate. E.g
basketball, hockey, football dribble
Low organisation – Skill is split into subroutines that are easily identifiable. E.g.
tennis serves, triple jump
Continuity
Discrete – Clear beginning and end. E.g. Shot from a penalty in football, bowling
a ball in cricket
Continuous – No obvious beginning and end. E.g. cycling, running, long distance
swimming
Serial – Several discrete elements put together to make up a sequence of
movements. E.g. triple jump, gymnastic or trampolining routine.
Types/Methods of practice
1. Part method – Low organisation. Helps learner understand complex skills. Useful for
teaching dangerous skills.
2. Whole method – Taught without breaking the skill down. Gives the player a true
‘feel’ of the skill. Often high organisation skills.
,3. Whole-part-whole method – Attempt the skill as a whole, break it down into parts,
then build it back up to a whole skill. Serial and low organisation. Feel for the skill
before breaking it down.
4. Progressive Part method - ‘chaining’. Skill is broken into subroutines that can be
linked.
1. Massed practice – Short or no rest interval at all. Fine skills
2. Distributed practice – Long rest intervals. Positive transfer of learning. Gross
skill
1. Fixed practice – Closed skill. Stable and predictable environment. Practice
conditions remain unchanged e.g flick serve practice in badminton.
2. Varied practice – Open skill. Many different situations so the athlete can learn
transferrable skills + prepare for a range of possible situations.
Transfer of skills
Proactive transfer – Previously learnt skill helps/influences the learning of a
new skill (Old to New)
Retroactive transfer – Newly learnt skill helps/influences previously learnt skill
(New to Old)
Positive transfer – When the learning and performance of one skill helps the
learning and performance of another skill. Positive transfer will only occur if the
learner is taught in a similar context to what they will be performing in.
Negative transfer – When the learning and performance of one skill hinders
the learning and performance of another skill. Rare and usually associated with
a misunderstanding. Familiar stimulus requires a different response.
Bilateral transfer – Transfer of learning from one limb to another through the
use of motor programmes. Cognitive aspects = understanding what is required.
Motor programmes are generalised series of movements stored in LTM. Almost
an automatic response to a situation.
How can a coach optimise positive transfer and minimise negative transfer? (SWEEP)
S - Similar skills
W – Well learnt first skill
E – Emphasis on transferrable element = key cue
E – Elements, identical = context and environment
P – Positive reinforcement = praise, rewards, medals.
Stages of Learning
Learning is a complex process. To help explain learning, we use 3 different stages.
1. The cognitive stage:
The earliest stage of learning
A lot of trial and error – failure is promoted.
Successful movements should be positively reinforced by the coach/teacher
Unsuccessful movements should be explained to the performer to help them
understand why (that went wrong because...)
Teacher may use demonstrations as guidance (visual = builds a picture)
2. The associative stage:
, The performer practices and compares the movements produced within the
mental image (gained in the cognitive stage). Through LTM – retention
Feedback occurs during this stage -> positive (intrinsic feedback = sport areas
ourselves). S-R bonds associated
The learner becomes more aware of subtle and complex cues. E.g. opponent
players movement while you are dribbling the ball. Focus on others (teammates,
opposition) and not just the isolated skill.
Often leads to a vast increase in performance at this stage.
Motor programmes are formed here – S-R bonds start to become natural
3. The autonomous stage:
Movements are becoming automatic with little conscious thought
Distractions are ignored by the performer as they concentrate on their skill (e.g.
opponents, opponents coach, crowd)
Motor programmes are fully formed here and added to the long-term memory.
They are rehearsed, available for retrieval for easy decision-making.
Feedback – Intrinsic. Coach takes a step back.
Guidance
Factors which affect guidance:
Personality of the performer
The skill/ability of the performer
The situation in which learning is taking place – group size
The nature of the skill being taught
Type of Definition Ways it should Strengths Weaknesses
guidance be applied
Verbal Used to - Don’t speak for + Quick and easy - Beginners would
describe an too long (you’ll as you don’t need not understand
action and lose their equipment difficult and
explain how to attention) + May revise complex
perform and - Don’t explain certain skills that words ;therefore,
activity. Motor difficult the performer not suitable for the
skills can be movements forgot cognitive stage
difficult to without an + Beneficial for the - Usually needed
describe an explanation associative stage with a
action, so - Direct verbal + Promotes demonstration so
verbal + visual guidance is better reinforcement of doesn’t act alone
guidance often in the early stages correct skills and - May confuse
used together. to ensure that the the avoidance of them
learner has a clear incorrect skills - Hard to build a
idea of what + Can be used to picture if the coach
needs to be done hold the attention has the guidance
of the learners incorrect
- Can lead to
‘information
overload’ with the
performer being
distracted or
confused.
Skill Classification
Motor/movement skill = An action or task that has a goal and that requires voluntary
body movement and/or limb movement to achieve the goal.
Difficulty
Simple – Straightforward skill without many decisions to make. E.g. Start in
swimming.
Complex – Harder skill, where lots of decisions must be made. E.g. a catch in
slip at cricket.
Environmental influence
Open – affected by the environment (externally paced). E.g. a pass in football
Closed – Not affected by the environment (self-paced). E.g. Basketball free
throw.
Pacing
Self-paced – The performer controls the rate at which the skill is executed. Any
serves. E.g. javelin
Externally-paced – The environment (e.g. opponent) controls the rate at
performing the skill. E.g. receiving a serve in badminton
Muscular involvement
Gross (power) – Involves large muscle movements. Power over precision. E.g.
shotput, rugby tackle
Fine – Involves more intricate movements. Often needs coordination. E.g.
snooker shot, dart throw.
Organisation
High organisation – The skill has subroutines that are difficult to separate. E.g
basketball, hockey, football dribble
Low organisation – Skill is split into subroutines that are easily identifiable. E.g.
tennis serves, triple jump
Continuity
Discrete – Clear beginning and end. E.g. Shot from a penalty in football, bowling
a ball in cricket
Continuous – No obvious beginning and end. E.g. cycling, running, long distance
swimming
Serial – Several discrete elements put together to make up a sequence of
movements. E.g. triple jump, gymnastic or trampolining routine.
Types/Methods of practice
1. Part method – Low organisation. Helps learner understand complex skills. Useful for
teaching dangerous skills.
2. Whole method – Taught without breaking the skill down. Gives the player a true
‘feel’ of the skill. Often high organisation skills.
,3. Whole-part-whole method – Attempt the skill as a whole, break it down into parts,
then build it back up to a whole skill. Serial and low organisation. Feel for the skill
before breaking it down.
4. Progressive Part method - ‘chaining’. Skill is broken into subroutines that can be
linked.
1. Massed practice – Short or no rest interval at all. Fine skills
2. Distributed practice – Long rest intervals. Positive transfer of learning. Gross
skill
1. Fixed practice – Closed skill. Stable and predictable environment. Practice
conditions remain unchanged e.g flick serve practice in badminton.
2. Varied practice – Open skill. Many different situations so the athlete can learn
transferrable skills + prepare for a range of possible situations.
Transfer of skills
Proactive transfer – Previously learnt skill helps/influences the learning of a
new skill (Old to New)
Retroactive transfer – Newly learnt skill helps/influences previously learnt skill
(New to Old)
Positive transfer – When the learning and performance of one skill helps the
learning and performance of another skill. Positive transfer will only occur if the
learner is taught in a similar context to what they will be performing in.
Negative transfer – When the learning and performance of one skill hinders
the learning and performance of another skill. Rare and usually associated with
a misunderstanding. Familiar stimulus requires a different response.
Bilateral transfer – Transfer of learning from one limb to another through the
use of motor programmes. Cognitive aspects = understanding what is required.
Motor programmes are generalised series of movements stored in LTM. Almost
an automatic response to a situation.
How can a coach optimise positive transfer and minimise negative transfer? (SWEEP)
S - Similar skills
W – Well learnt first skill
E – Emphasis on transferrable element = key cue
E – Elements, identical = context and environment
P – Positive reinforcement = praise, rewards, medals.
Stages of Learning
Learning is a complex process. To help explain learning, we use 3 different stages.
1. The cognitive stage:
The earliest stage of learning
A lot of trial and error – failure is promoted.
Successful movements should be positively reinforced by the coach/teacher
Unsuccessful movements should be explained to the performer to help them
understand why (that went wrong because...)
Teacher may use demonstrations as guidance (visual = builds a picture)
2. The associative stage:
, The performer practices and compares the movements produced within the
mental image (gained in the cognitive stage). Through LTM – retention
Feedback occurs during this stage -> positive (intrinsic feedback = sport areas
ourselves). S-R bonds associated
The learner becomes more aware of subtle and complex cues. E.g. opponent
players movement while you are dribbling the ball. Focus on others (teammates,
opposition) and not just the isolated skill.
Often leads to a vast increase in performance at this stage.
Motor programmes are formed here – S-R bonds start to become natural
3. The autonomous stage:
Movements are becoming automatic with little conscious thought
Distractions are ignored by the performer as they concentrate on their skill (e.g.
opponents, opponents coach, crowd)
Motor programmes are fully formed here and added to the long-term memory.
They are rehearsed, available for retrieval for easy decision-making.
Feedback – Intrinsic. Coach takes a step back.
Guidance
Factors which affect guidance:
Personality of the performer
The skill/ability of the performer
The situation in which learning is taking place – group size
The nature of the skill being taught
Type of Definition Ways it should Strengths Weaknesses
guidance be applied
Verbal Used to - Don’t speak for + Quick and easy - Beginners would
describe an too long (you’ll as you don’t need not understand
action and lose their equipment difficult and
explain how to attention) + May revise complex
perform and - Don’t explain certain skills that words ;therefore,
activity. Motor difficult the performer not suitable for the
skills can be movements forgot cognitive stage
difficult to without an + Beneficial for the - Usually needed
describe an explanation associative stage with a
action, so - Direct verbal + Promotes demonstration so
verbal + visual guidance is better reinforcement of doesn’t act alone
guidance often in the early stages correct skills and - May confuse
used together. to ensure that the the avoidance of them
learner has a clear incorrect skills - Hard to build a
idea of what + Can be used to picture if the coach
needs to be done hold the attention has the guidance
of the learners incorrect
- Can lead to
‘information
overload’ with the
performer being
distracted or
confused.
