Section 1: The establishment and early years of the
Weimar Republic, 1918-24
Impact of war, the political crises of October to November
1918, and the establishment of the Weimar Constitution
Learning objectives:
The impact of the war and the reasons why the Kaier abdicated in
November 1918.
The struggle for power in Germany after the abdication, and the
political crises of October to November 1918.
The establishment of the German Republic and its constitution.
The strengths and weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution.
The abdication of the Kaiser
9 November 1918.
By end of Sept 1918, clear to General Ludendorff and the German High
Command Germany on brink of defeat. Allied armies not yet entered
German territories but German forces in retreat along Western Front.
Elsewhere in Europe, Germany’s allies trying to negotiate peace terms.
Ludendorff concluded only hope of avoiding humiliating surrender =
ask Allies for an armistice. Wilson’s Fourteen Points offered possible
basis for negotiated peace settlement but Ludendorff understood
Germany’s autocratic political system was obstacle to this. Ludendorff
therefore advocated a partial democratisation of political system in
Germany as way of getting better peace terms from Allies.
President Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Means of dealing fairly with aftermath of war.
Some points, e.g. return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, quite specific
and punitive to Germany.
Some general principles, e.g. the establishment of a League of
Nations to monitor future disputes and self-determination, whereby
different nations should rule themselves.
General disarmament and Wilson’s determination to create a peace
that would last and prevent another war.
,The October Reforms:
Oct 1918, following recommendations of Ludendorff, Kaiser began
series of reforms that effectively ended his autocratic rule:
He appointed Prince Max od Baden as his new Chancellor.
The Chancellor was to be responsible to the Reichstag and he
established a new gov based on the majority parties in the
Reichstag, inc the German Social Democrat Party (SPD).
The armed forces were put under the control of the civil
government.
These reforms were major constitutional transformation in Germany
but did not come about as result of popular pressure, nor because of
pressure from the main democratic parties in Reichstag. They
amounted to a ‘revolution from above’ which was not only designed to
save Germany from humiliation, but also to save the Kaiser’s rule.
The Peace Note:
3 Oct Prince Max wrote to Wilson asking for armistice.
Wilson demanded Germany must evacuate all occupied territory, call
end to submarine warfare, fully democratise political system.
Effectively demanded German surrender and Kaiser abdication – too
much for Ludendorff to accept. Ludendorff tried but failed to gather
support for military effort to resist – resigned, fled to Sweden. Reforms
had failed to achieve his objectives.
The impact on the German people
News Prince Max asking for armistice = blow to morale of Germans and
armed forces. Peace Note admission Germany lost war. 1 st time
Germans learned truth about hopeless military situation = undermined
respect for Kaiser/military/political leaders.
Civilians borne hardships of food shortages with fortitude but no longer
prepared to show restraint.
Soldiers/sailors lost respect for their officers.
Kaiser seen as obstacle to peace but refused to abdicate.
During strike in Friedrichshafen 22 Oct 1918 workers shouted ‘The
Kaiser is a scoundrel’ and ‘Up with the German Republic’.
28 Oct: German navy’s high command ordered ships from
Wilhelmshaven to attack British ships = crews of two cruisers refused.
This naval mutiny was beginning of broader revolutionary movement.
,The November Revolution of 1918:
Unrest in navy spready to main German naval base in Kiel. 3 Nov 1918
sailors mutinied against officers and took control of base.
Next day, revolt spread to city. Workers’ and soldiers’ councils
established, similar to Soviets in Russia.
Despite attempts by gov to meet mutineers’ demands, revolt spread to
other German ports/cities.
By 6 Nov, workers and soldiers councils emerging spontaneously across
Germany.
Radical socialists did not lead revolts. Most councils were patriotic
Germans who wanted Kaiser to abdicate and democratic republic
established.
Once authority of military officers, gov officials and police challenged,
collapse of regime occurred with extraordinary speed.
8 Nov, a republic was proclaimed in Bavaria and Bavarian monarchy
was deposed = this was decisive moment in German Revolution. Key
stage in establishment of an all-German Republic as it brought home to
Prince Max that he had lost control of situation.
9 Nov, SPD called workers in Berlin to join general strike to force Kaiser
to abdicate. SPD threatened to withdraw support from Prince Max gov
unless Kaiser abdicated in 24hrs. Max knew couldn’t govern without
SPD so when Kaiser refused, Max issued press statement claiming
Kaiser had abdicated = no constitutional authority to do this.
Same day, Max resigned as Chancellor and handed position to Ebert –
leader of SPD. Scheidemann (leading SPD figure) declared German
Republic.
All happened before Kaiser abdicated. General Groener told Kaiser that
army wouldn’t fight for him. Kaiser lost control and had no choice.
The struggle for power:
Ebert not a revolutionary. Believed in evolutionary change through
winning majority in parliamentary elections and introducing reforms.
Even though he had been chose by Max as Chancellor because he was
leader of majority party in Reichstag, he had come to power through a
revolutionary act.
Conscious of fact his gov lacked legitimacy = determined to establish
new constitution ASAP.
His priority after signing armistice on 11 Nov was to organise elections
for a Constituent Assembly.
, Prior to creation of new Constitution, Ebert urged Germans to keep
essential services running, avoid street demos, maintain law and order.
Evert’s problem = authority did not extent much beyond Berlin where
disorder/violence becoming the norm.
After armistice and demobilisation of much of army, bands of angry,
disillusioned, workless ex-soldiers roamed streets. Street demos,
strikes, armed clashed regular occurrences.
Socialist groups and parties in 1918
Spartacist League USPD SPD
(KPD)
Founded: Founded: Founded:
1916 by 1917 by breakaway 1875 as a Marxist
revolutionary minority group from socialist party
minority from SPD. left of SPD. committed to
revolution.
Leaders: Leaders: Leaders:
Liebknecht and Hasse. Ebert and
Luxemburg. Scheidemann.
Aims: Aims: Aims:
Republican gov Republic with Moderate socialist
controlled by national Reichstag republic with
workers’ and working with democratic
soldiers’ councils, workers’ and elections and basic
welfare benefits, soldiers’ councils, personal freedoms,
nationalisation, welfare welfare
workers’ control of improvements, improvements and
major industries, nationalisation of gradual
disbanding of the industry, breaking nationalisation of
army and creation up of large estates, industry. Continuity
of local workers’ reform of army, and order.
militias. Opposed creation of national Supported Germany
ww1. militia. Opposed entry into ww1.
ww1.
Support: Support: Support:
Workers would join Grew in strength W/c voters and
rallies/demos in during 1918 as war- became largest
streets. weariness grew. party in Reichstag
1912.
Membership: Membership: Membership:
c5000 c300,000 c1m
Pressure from the left
Weimar Republic, 1918-24
Impact of war, the political crises of October to November
1918, and the establishment of the Weimar Constitution
Learning objectives:
The impact of the war and the reasons why the Kaier abdicated in
November 1918.
The struggle for power in Germany after the abdication, and the
political crises of October to November 1918.
The establishment of the German Republic and its constitution.
The strengths and weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution.
The abdication of the Kaiser
9 November 1918.
By end of Sept 1918, clear to General Ludendorff and the German High
Command Germany on brink of defeat. Allied armies not yet entered
German territories but German forces in retreat along Western Front.
Elsewhere in Europe, Germany’s allies trying to negotiate peace terms.
Ludendorff concluded only hope of avoiding humiliating surrender =
ask Allies for an armistice. Wilson’s Fourteen Points offered possible
basis for negotiated peace settlement but Ludendorff understood
Germany’s autocratic political system was obstacle to this. Ludendorff
therefore advocated a partial democratisation of political system in
Germany as way of getting better peace terms from Allies.
President Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Means of dealing fairly with aftermath of war.
Some points, e.g. return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, quite specific
and punitive to Germany.
Some general principles, e.g. the establishment of a League of
Nations to monitor future disputes and self-determination, whereby
different nations should rule themselves.
General disarmament and Wilson’s determination to create a peace
that would last and prevent another war.
,The October Reforms:
Oct 1918, following recommendations of Ludendorff, Kaiser began
series of reforms that effectively ended his autocratic rule:
He appointed Prince Max od Baden as his new Chancellor.
The Chancellor was to be responsible to the Reichstag and he
established a new gov based on the majority parties in the
Reichstag, inc the German Social Democrat Party (SPD).
The armed forces were put under the control of the civil
government.
These reforms were major constitutional transformation in Germany
but did not come about as result of popular pressure, nor because of
pressure from the main democratic parties in Reichstag. They
amounted to a ‘revolution from above’ which was not only designed to
save Germany from humiliation, but also to save the Kaiser’s rule.
The Peace Note:
3 Oct Prince Max wrote to Wilson asking for armistice.
Wilson demanded Germany must evacuate all occupied territory, call
end to submarine warfare, fully democratise political system.
Effectively demanded German surrender and Kaiser abdication – too
much for Ludendorff to accept. Ludendorff tried but failed to gather
support for military effort to resist – resigned, fled to Sweden. Reforms
had failed to achieve his objectives.
The impact on the German people
News Prince Max asking for armistice = blow to morale of Germans and
armed forces. Peace Note admission Germany lost war. 1 st time
Germans learned truth about hopeless military situation = undermined
respect for Kaiser/military/political leaders.
Civilians borne hardships of food shortages with fortitude but no longer
prepared to show restraint.
Soldiers/sailors lost respect for their officers.
Kaiser seen as obstacle to peace but refused to abdicate.
During strike in Friedrichshafen 22 Oct 1918 workers shouted ‘The
Kaiser is a scoundrel’ and ‘Up with the German Republic’.
28 Oct: German navy’s high command ordered ships from
Wilhelmshaven to attack British ships = crews of two cruisers refused.
This naval mutiny was beginning of broader revolutionary movement.
,The November Revolution of 1918:
Unrest in navy spready to main German naval base in Kiel. 3 Nov 1918
sailors mutinied against officers and took control of base.
Next day, revolt spread to city. Workers’ and soldiers’ councils
established, similar to Soviets in Russia.
Despite attempts by gov to meet mutineers’ demands, revolt spread to
other German ports/cities.
By 6 Nov, workers and soldiers councils emerging spontaneously across
Germany.
Radical socialists did not lead revolts. Most councils were patriotic
Germans who wanted Kaiser to abdicate and democratic republic
established.
Once authority of military officers, gov officials and police challenged,
collapse of regime occurred with extraordinary speed.
8 Nov, a republic was proclaimed in Bavaria and Bavarian monarchy
was deposed = this was decisive moment in German Revolution. Key
stage in establishment of an all-German Republic as it brought home to
Prince Max that he had lost control of situation.
9 Nov, SPD called workers in Berlin to join general strike to force Kaiser
to abdicate. SPD threatened to withdraw support from Prince Max gov
unless Kaiser abdicated in 24hrs. Max knew couldn’t govern without
SPD so when Kaiser refused, Max issued press statement claiming
Kaiser had abdicated = no constitutional authority to do this.
Same day, Max resigned as Chancellor and handed position to Ebert –
leader of SPD. Scheidemann (leading SPD figure) declared German
Republic.
All happened before Kaiser abdicated. General Groener told Kaiser that
army wouldn’t fight for him. Kaiser lost control and had no choice.
The struggle for power:
Ebert not a revolutionary. Believed in evolutionary change through
winning majority in parliamentary elections and introducing reforms.
Even though he had been chose by Max as Chancellor because he was
leader of majority party in Reichstag, he had come to power through a
revolutionary act.
Conscious of fact his gov lacked legitimacy = determined to establish
new constitution ASAP.
His priority after signing armistice on 11 Nov was to organise elections
for a Constituent Assembly.
, Prior to creation of new Constitution, Ebert urged Germans to keep
essential services running, avoid street demos, maintain law and order.
Evert’s problem = authority did not extent much beyond Berlin where
disorder/violence becoming the norm.
After armistice and demobilisation of much of army, bands of angry,
disillusioned, workless ex-soldiers roamed streets. Street demos,
strikes, armed clashed regular occurrences.
Socialist groups and parties in 1918
Spartacist League USPD SPD
(KPD)
Founded: Founded: Founded:
1916 by 1917 by breakaway 1875 as a Marxist
revolutionary minority group from socialist party
minority from SPD. left of SPD. committed to
revolution.
Leaders: Leaders: Leaders:
Liebknecht and Hasse. Ebert and
Luxemburg. Scheidemann.
Aims: Aims: Aims:
Republican gov Republic with Moderate socialist
controlled by national Reichstag republic with
workers’ and working with democratic
soldiers’ councils, workers’ and elections and basic
welfare benefits, soldiers’ councils, personal freedoms,
nationalisation, welfare welfare
workers’ control of improvements, improvements and
major industries, nationalisation of gradual
disbanding of the industry, breaking nationalisation of
army and creation up of large estates, industry. Continuity
of local workers’ reform of army, and order.
militias. Opposed creation of national Supported Germany
ww1. militia. Opposed entry into ww1.
ww1.
Support: Support: Support:
Workers would join Grew in strength W/c voters and
rallies/demos in during 1918 as war- became largest
streets. weariness grew. party in Reichstag
1912.
Membership: Membership: Membership:
c5000 c300,000 c1m
Pressure from the left
