Motivation self-regulation and performance
Problem 1 - The structure of Self-Regulation & Nudging
Notes on reading material;
Part 1: Self-regulation and theories (1,2)
Part 2: Self-efficacy and performance and control theory (3,4)
Part 3: Nudging (5,6,7)
Artikel 1: Goal-striving and self-regulation processes – Dieffendorff and Lord (book chapter)
Definition of Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the capacity to guide ones activities over time and across changing circumstances.
Karoly (1993): those processes internal and or transactional that enable an individual to guide his or
her goal-directed activities over time and across changing circumstances. IT implies the modulation
of thought, affect behaviour or attention via deliberate or automated use of specific mechanisms and
supportive meta-skills. There are many definitions but it is clear that it relates to understanding the
self and relates to different aspects of human functioning.
Self-regulation is relevant to different phenomenon’s like thought, attention, emotion, behaviour,
impulses, desires , physiological processes and task performance. It involves conscious and automatic
processes. Self-regulation is also important for setting goals and achieving those goals. Self-regulation
not only reflects using one’s willpower to reach goals but also flexibly using a variety of means to
attain goals. For example persisting on a task until completion or disengaging of action that is
doomed of failure. Flexibly allocation attention between multiple goals or focusing ong only one goal
and ignoring all others. The key to effective self-regulation is the ability to act in multiple goals
environments while responding to internal condition in a flexible and context-sensitive manner.
Part 1 and 2:
A taxonomy of self-regulation Theories
Theories focus on or more of these 3 things: structure, phases or content of self-regulation.
1. Structural theories
Emphasize how individuals set, pursue and revise goals over time without describing what it is that
they are pursuing. These theories provide links among abstract concepts that are useful to mangers
and independent of goal content.
The control theory provides a dynamic view of behaviour based on the reciprocal interdependence
of a person interacting with the environment over time. It is useful for explaining how the value of a
controlled variable (the goal) can be kept within specific limits despite variability in the environment.
,The control theory assumes a hierarchical structuring of goals with short-term, concrete goals lower
in the hierarchy and long-term goals higher. Lower-level goals can be thought of as strategies for
attaining higher-level goals. Lower-level action goals exist as a result of the need to reduce goal-
performance discrepancies that exist at levels higher in the goal hierarchy.
Social cognitive theory
It also views self-regulation as a cyclical process with feedback about goals progress being used by
individuals to make adjustments to current actions so as to reduce discrepancies between behaviour
and goals. It also assumes a hierarchical structuring of foals. A difference according to bandura and
Locke is that SCT emphasizes discrepancy production (setting new goals that are higher than one’s
last performance) whereas CT emphasizes discrepancy reduction (striving to reach one’s goals). Their
basic argument of the SCT is that motivation resides in the desire to achieve challenging goals (which
is a result of discrepancy production) rather than in the desire to reduce discrepancies. Achieving a
goals and reducing discrepancies involve identical processes.
Related criticism on the CT is that they don’t make a difference between discrepancy elimination by
working hard to reach one’s goal or achieving a low-ordering goal. Achieving a low goal could
eventually lead to increasing goal conflict. It thus is not an effective self-regulatory response. But
there are exceptions. When you keep failing your goals maybe lowering task goals is good.
Why do we create these discrepancies?
SCT explains discrepancy production as being a result of individuals trying to motivate themselves. CT
argues that individuals may raise their goals as part of their efforts to reduce discrepancies for goals
higher in the goal hierarchy. This is kind of the same.
Phase theories
Focus on the sequence of activities involved in goals pursuit starting with goal selection and ending at
goal attainment or goal revision. These theories break self-regulation in discrete steps and describe
the task to be accomplished and the cognitive, emotional and behavioural resources needed.
Lewin, Dembo, Festinger and sears (1944) described motivation process as consisting of two phases:
Goals setting: weighing the reasons for pursuing activities to determine what goals will become
dominant and goal striving: performing behaviors in the service of goal attainment such as initiating
action, putting forth effort, trying different strategies and overcoming setbacks.
Zimmerman (2000): forethought, permance and self-reflection
forethought: (goal setting)
, performance: (goal striving)self-control and
self-reflection: self-judgement
Karoly (1993): 5 phases Goal selection(1), goal cognition(2), directional maintenance(3), directional
change or reprioritization(4) and goal termination(5). adds an planning and strategy
development(2) and divides the reflection in goal revision(4) and goal attainment(5)
Gollwitzer, 1990: most used process.
Each step has a different mindset that prepare a person to act in a way that maximally benefits
performance.
- goal establishment: deliberative mind-set; general openness to information and accurately evaluate
the feasibility and desirability. Phase ends when goal is made
- planning phase; implemental mind-set; cognitive tuning toward action-related information and
incomplete and optimising analyses of one’s goal feasibility. Ends when the action beings.
- striving phase: actional mind-set; individuals become immersed in performing the task and
experience close-mindedness to info non-related. Action is complete = done.
- goal evaluation/Revision: evaluative mind-set; individuals once again examine the feasibility and
desirability of the goal. These feed into goal selection for the next sequence.
phase theories do not describe how regulatory constructs interact over time (structural theories)
or what individuals are pursuing (content theories).
3.Content theories
Describe the type of activities that individuals pursue and the ways in which the nature of one’s
goals affect self-regulation. They describe how the type of activity influence the self-regulatory
processes and outcomes. These theories often appeal to basic needs or personality constructs as
determinants of chronic goals or how goals are framed to reflect different content.
Self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci (2002) ) (add picture lecture)
Focuses on the role of basic human needs in driving behaviour and distinguishing extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation and amotivation. (add picture lecture slide)
There are 3 kinds of motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation: behaviours that are enjoyable and inherently interesting
2. Amotivation: behaviours that lack intention and motivation
3. Extrinsic: Behaviours linked to some external reward
a. External motivation: no internalization of an activity
, b. Introjected motivation: not internalized but individuals have learned to self-
administer the external contingencies
c. Identified motivation: reflects a more internalized form of extrinsic motivation
whereby individuals understand the value of the behaviour but not completely
accepted it.
d. Integrated motivation: most complete assimilation of extrinsic goals whereby
individuals identify with the value of the behaviour and have merged it with the self.
Level of intrinsic vs extrinsic is depended on three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and
relatedness.
Intrinsic motivated goal well-being
Extrinsic ‘’> ill-being.
Regulatory focus control Higgins (1997) (add picture lecture)
This theory describes how framing tasks as promotion or prevention can impact the goals selected,
the way in which they regulate behaviour and the emotion experienced. It can link goals and self-
regulation with emotions.
Goals can be framed as prevention focused or promotion focused.
Promotion focused: minimize differences between actual and ideal selves. People tend to be high in
approach motivation and are concerned with nurturance needs and identifying opportunities for
personal growth. As a result: experience eagerness when striving, joy when reaching goal and
sadness if not.
Prevention focused: minimize differences between their actual and ought selves. People are high in
avoidance motivation and emphasize security needs and avoiding losses. They see goals as obligation
and as a result tend to be cautious when striving, feel relaxed when goals are attained and nervous
when not.
Goal orientation theory (Dweck 1978)
Similar to regulatory theory it describes how the framing of goals can influence the contents of one’s
task-level goals, the strategies used during striving and how it is evaluated.
Goal orientation refers to the types of goals that individuals have in achievement situations. (more
contextualized).
- Learning-goal orientation LGO: wish to develop knowledge, skills etc and believe that ability is
changeable.
- Performance-goal orientation PGO: seek to demonstrate their competence and ability in
comparison to others and tend to believe that ability is fixed.
- approach: prove their competence and ability in comparison with others
- avoid: avoid displays od incompetence and negative judgements from others
Artikel 2 – Attaining self-regulation; a social cognitive perspective – Zimmerman (book chapter)
Problem 1 - The structure of Self-Regulation & Nudging
Notes on reading material;
Part 1: Self-regulation and theories (1,2)
Part 2: Self-efficacy and performance and control theory (3,4)
Part 3: Nudging (5,6,7)
Artikel 1: Goal-striving and self-regulation processes – Dieffendorff and Lord (book chapter)
Definition of Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the capacity to guide ones activities over time and across changing circumstances.
Karoly (1993): those processes internal and or transactional that enable an individual to guide his or
her goal-directed activities over time and across changing circumstances. IT implies the modulation
of thought, affect behaviour or attention via deliberate or automated use of specific mechanisms and
supportive meta-skills. There are many definitions but it is clear that it relates to understanding the
self and relates to different aspects of human functioning.
Self-regulation is relevant to different phenomenon’s like thought, attention, emotion, behaviour,
impulses, desires , physiological processes and task performance. It involves conscious and automatic
processes. Self-regulation is also important for setting goals and achieving those goals. Self-regulation
not only reflects using one’s willpower to reach goals but also flexibly using a variety of means to
attain goals. For example persisting on a task until completion or disengaging of action that is
doomed of failure. Flexibly allocation attention between multiple goals or focusing ong only one goal
and ignoring all others. The key to effective self-regulation is the ability to act in multiple goals
environments while responding to internal condition in a flexible and context-sensitive manner.
Part 1 and 2:
A taxonomy of self-regulation Theories
Theories focus on or more of these 3 things: structure, phases or content of self-regulation.
1. Structural theories
Emphasize how individuals set, pursue and revise goals over time without describing what it is that
they are pursuing. These theories provide links among abstract concepts that are useful to mangers
and independent of goal content.
The control theory provides a dynamic view of behaviour based on the reciprocal interdependence
of a person interacting with the environment over time. It is useful for explaining how the value of a
controlled variable (the goal) can be kept within specific limits despite variability in the environment.
,The control theory assumes a hierarchical structuring of goals with short-term, concrete goals lower
in the hierarchy and long-term goals higher. Lower-level goals can be thought of as strategies for
attaining higher-level goals. Lower-level action goals exist as a result of the need to reduce goal-
performance discrepancies that exist at levels higher in the goal hierarchy.
Social cognitive theory
It also views self-regulation as a cyclical process with feedback about goals progress being used by
individuals to make adjustments to current actions so as to reduce discrepancies between behaviour
and goals. It also assumes a hierarchical structuring of foals. A difference according to bandura and
Locke is that SCT emphasizes discrepancy production (setting new goals that are higher than one’s
last performance) whereas CT emphasizes discrepancy reduction (striving to reach one’s goals). Their
basic argument of the SCT is that motivation resides in the desire to achieve challenging goals (which
is a result of discrepancy production) rather than in the desire to reduce discrepancies. Achieving a
goals and reducing discrepancies involve identical processes.
Related criticism on the CT is that they don’t make a difference between discrepancy elimination by
working hard to reach one’s goal or achieving a low-ordering goal. Achieving a low goal could
eventually lead to increasing goal conflict. It thus is not an effective self-regulatory response. But
there are exceptions. When you keep failing your goals maybe lowering task goals is good.
Why do we create these discrepancies?
SCT explains discrepancy production as being a result of individuals trying to motivate themselves. CT
argues that individuals may raise their goals as part of their efforts to reduce discrepancies for goals
higher in the goal hierarchy. This is kind of the same.
Phase theories
Focus on the sequence of activities involved in goals pursuit starting with goal selection and ending at
goal attainment or goal revision. These theories break self-regulation in discrete steps and describe
the task to be accomplished and the cognitive, emotional and behavioural resources needed.
Lewin, Dembo, Festinger and sears (1944) described motivation process as consisting of two phases:
Goals setting: weighing the reasons for pursuing activities to determine what goals will become
dominant and goal striving: performing behaviors in the service of goal attainment such as initiating
action, putting forth effort, trying different strategies and overcoming setbacks.
Zimmerman (2000): forethought, permance and self-reflection
forethought: (goal setting)
, performance: (goal striving)self-control and
self-reflection: self-judgement
Karoly (1993): 5 phases Goal selection(1), goal cognition(2), directional maintenance(3), directional
change or reprioritization(4) and goal termination(5). adds an planning and strategy
development(2) and divides the reflection in goal revision(4) and goal attainment(5)
Gollwitzer, 1990: most used process.
Each step has a different mindset that prepare a person to act in a way that maximally benefits
performance.
- goal establishment: deliberative mind-set; general openness to information and accurately evaluate
the feasibility and desirability. Phase ends when goal is made
- planning phase; implemental mind-set; cognitive tuning toward action-related information and
incomplete and optimising analyses of one’s goal feasibility. Ends when the action beings.
- striving phase: actional mind-set; individuals become immersed in performing the task and
experience close-mindedness to info non-related. Action is complete = done.
- goal evaluation/Revision: evaluative mind-set; individuals once again examine the feasibility and
desirability of the goal. These feed into goal selection for the next sequence.
phase theories do not describe how regulatory constructs interact over time (structural theories)
or what individuals are pursuing (content theories).
3.Content theories
Describe the type of activities that individuals pursue and the ways in which the nature of one’s
goals affect self-regulation. They describe how the type of activity influence the self-regulatory
processes and outcomes. These theories often appeal to basic needs or personality constructs as
determinants of chronic goals or how goals are framed to reflect different content.
Self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci (2002) ) (add picture lecture)
Focuses on the role of basic human needs in driving behaviour and distinguishing extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation and amotivation. (add picture lecture slide)
There are 3 kinds of motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation: behaviours that are enjoyable and inherently interesting
2. Amotivation: behaviours that lack intention and motivation
3. Extrinsic: Behaviours linked to some external reward
a. External motivation: no internalization of an activity
, b. Introjected motivation: not internalized but individuals have learned to self-
administer the external contingencies
c. Identified motivation: reflects a more internalized form of extrinsic motivation
whereby individuals understand the value of the behaviour but not completely
accepted it.
d. Integrated motivation: most complete assimilation of extrinsic goals whereby
individuals identify with the value of the behaviour and have merged it with the self.
Level of intrinsic vs extrinsic is depended on three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and
relatedness.
Intrinsic motivated goal well-being
Extrinsic ‘’> ill-being.
Regulatory focus control Higgins (1997) (add picture lecture)
This theory describes how framing tasks as promotion or prevention can impact the goals selected,
the way in which they regulate behaviour and the emotion experienced. It can link goals and self-
regulation with emotions.
Goals can be framed as prevention focused or promotion focused.
Promotion focused: minimize differences between actual and ideal selves. People tend to be high in
approach motivation and are concerned with nurturance needs and identifying opportunities for
personal growth. As a result: experience eagerness when striving, joy when reaching goal and
sadness if not.
Prevention focused: minimize differences between their actual and ought selves. People are high in
avoidance motivation and emphasize security needs and avoiding losses. They see goals as obligation
and as a result tend to be cautious when striving, feel relaxed when goals are attained and nervous
when not.
Goal orientation theory (Dweck 1978)
Similar to regulatory theory it describes how the framing of goals can influence the contents of one’s
task-level goals, the strategies used during striving and how it is evaluated.
Goal orientation refers to the types of goals that individuals have in achievement situations. (more
contextualized).
- Learning-goal orientation LGO: wish to develop knowledge, skills etc and believe that ability is
changeable.
- Performance-goal orientation PGO: seek to demonstrate their competence and ability in
comparison to others and tend to believe that ability is fixed.
- approach: prove their competence and ability in comparison with others
- avoid: avoid displays od incompetence and negative judgements from others
Artikel 2 – Attaining self-regulation; a social cognitive perspective – Zimmerman (book chapter)
