Ethics | Lecture 6-11 Summary
Lecture 6: Virtue Ethics - Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics)
- Modern concept of man:
• Rationalism: A theorist Rene Descartes argued ego cogito, in which he stated "I
think, therefore I am". He argued that we cannot doubt of our existence while we
doubt. According to Descartes, everything we think proves existence of one as a
thinking thing.
• Naturalism: According to Hobbes, the only true and correct form of government is
the absolute monarchy. This stems from the central tenet of Hobbes' natural
philosophy that human beings are, at their core, selfish creatures (i.e. selfish
system).
• David Hume argued that reason is the salve of the passions - in the sense that
practical reason alone cannot give rise to moral motivation; it is altogether
dependent on pre-existing desires that furnish motivational force.
• Utilitarianism
• Neoclassical economy: Neoclassical economics is an approach to economics that
relates supply and demand to an individual's rationality and his ability to maximise
utility or profit. It focuses on man as a rational self-interested animal.
• Every interpretation has a fore-structure: its fore-having, its fore-sight, and its
fore-conception.
→ No idea of community!
- Aristotle argued that individuals are communitarian beings, where man is by
nature a political animal.
• Being as Being (Teleological Structure of Reality) → anything exists for the mere
fact that it exists, not the contents of the thing itself. This attributes belonging to it
in its own right. It is a rule that applies to any existing object because it is
something that exists.
• Essence → The essence of a thing or substance is able to be known and so defined
accordingly. It is through the definition that we come to know essences. The most
classic example is the definition of a human being as a “rational animal.” To say
that the essence of Socrates is to be human is to say that Socrates possesses a
certain set of properties which are necessary to a human being—namely, a rational
nature and an animal nature.
• The fulfilment of its essence is its telos: its end or goal.
• The goal of human life is the fulfilment of our essence → rational animal.
Page 1 of 26
,- The Nicomachean Ethics is the name given to Aristotle's best-known work on
ethics. Aristotle begins the work by positing that there exists some ultimate good
toward which, in the final analysis, all human actions ultimately aim.
• What is the goal (end) of politics? The end (or goal) of politics is the best of
ends; and the main concern of politics is to engender a certain character in the
citizens and to make them good and disposed to perform noble actions.
• Every action is aimed at some good yet these aims vary between individual and
context. Aristotle argues this by going through the list of what many may consider
the highest good of actions; for example pursuing wealth, honor, or wisdom.
• According to Aristotle, pleasure is not the aim of every human action,
because not every pleasure is good. (Remember, the highest good is intrinsically
good). The pleasure which is found in some forms of activity may be good, and the
pleasure which is found in other forms of activity may be bad.
• Aristotle says that eudaimonia means doing and living well. It is a moral
philosophy that defines right action as that which leads to the well-being of the
individual, thus holding well-being as having essential value.
• Happiness is not pleasure/not honour. It is related to the fulfilment of our
essence.
• The other definition of man given by Aristotle in “Politics” and the “Nicomachean
Ethics”, namely zoon logon echon, translated in Latin as animal rationale. It’s just
a way of logically distinguishing the specie man or human being from the genus
“zoe”, through a different specie, in this case “logon echon” (open to the use of
language/reason.
- Aristotle believed that you can't act without reason, and that human good lies in
good actions. Virtue is a disposition that enables you to perform good actions.
Happiness is the activity of the soul according to a complete virtue (in a life that
has come to completion). It is a continuous way of life.
- There are two kinds of virtues, related to different parts of the soul:
1. The desiring/striving part (ethical virtues): are dispositions like courage,
modesty, calmness, friendliness, etc.
2. The rational part (intellectual virtues): are the deep personal qualities or
character strengths required for good thinking and learning.
- Virtues are in the middle between two extremes; too much, too little / exaggeration
– falling short. Virtue is an intentional disposition striking the middle/the mean: a
way of relating, not what you feel, but the way you feel – and the way you act. The
goal is the performance of virtue itself; courage – being couragious, friendliness –
Page 2 of 26
, being friendly etc. It is a joy to perform a virtue: pleasure is the presence of the
thing you love. A virtue is stable and is not dependent of circumstances.
- What is a good action, according to Aristotle?
• Depends on the circumstance - i.e. the situation.
• What needs to be done, how it should be done, for whom, the means, when etcs.
• So not someone's will is decisive, but the situation he/she is in.
• What is the ultimate goal/ends? Happiness - the good life as a whole.
• The unity of the course of someone's life and his/her way of life.
- Virtue is an intentional disposition attaining the mean. How is that possible? It
depends on good deliberation (reason). What is good deliberation? Three
elements:
1. Ability to see what is going on - perception of the facts.
2. To know what is good in general - guidelines of what to do.
3. The actual deliberation as a form of reasoning in which 1 and 2 are determining
and correcting each other!
- Aristotle argues three kinds of knowledge:
1. Scientific
2. Technical
3. Practical
- For Aristotle, prudence or practical wisdom is a virtue of thought that is practical
rather than theoretical and deliberative rather than intuitive. It is the intellectual
virtue that perfects reasoning in regard to decision making in the realm of human
action. It was the practical intellectual virtue.
- Complete virtue = Justice: living with other people: doing the right thing for
yourself and towards others (individual/community). Here, love and friendship are
of vital importance. Traditional virtues here are courage, modesty, justice and
prudence.
- Alasdair MacIntyre examines the idea of virtue:
• MacIntyre emphasises the importance of moral goods defined in respect to a
community engaged in a 'practice'—which he calls 'internal goods' or 'goods of
excellence'—rather than focusing on practice-independent obligation of a moral
agent (deontological ethics) or the consequences of a particular act (utilitarianism).
• He believed that politics should be a practice with internal goods, but as it is now
it only leads to external goods. Some win, others lose; there is no good achieved
that is good for the whole community; cheating and exploitation are frequent, and
Page 3 of 26
Lecture 6: Virtue Ethics - Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics)
- Modern concept of man:
• Rationalism: A theorist Rene Descartes argued ego cogito, in which he stated "I
think, therefore I am". He argued that we cannot doubt of our existence while we
doubt. According to Descartes, everything we think proves existence of one as a
thinking thing.
• Naturalism: According to Hobbes, the only true and correct form of government is
the absolute monarchy. This stems from the central tenet of Hobbes' natural
philosophy that human beings are, at their core, selfish creatures (i.e. selfish
system).
• David Hume argued that reason is the salve of the passions - in the sense that
practical reason alone cannot give rise to moral motivation; it is altogether
dependent on pre-existing desires that furnish motivational force.
• Utilitarianism
• Neoclassical economy: Neoclassical economics is an approach to economics that
relates supply and demand to an individual's rationality and his ability to maximise
utility or profit. It focuses on man as a rational self-interested animal.
• Every interpretation has a fore-structure: its fore-having, its fore-sight, and its
fore-conception.
→ No idea of community!
- Aristotle argued that individuals are communitarian beings, where man is by
nature a political animal.
• Being as Being (Teleological Structure of Reality) → anything exists for the mere
fact that it exists, not the contents of the thing itself. This attributes belonging to it
in its own right. It is a rule that applies to any existing object because it is
something that exists.
• Essence → The essence of a thing or substance is able to be known and so defined
accordingly. It is through the definition that we come to know essences. The most
classic example is the definition of a human being as a “rational animal.” To say
that the essence of Socrates is to be human is to say that Socrates possesses a
certain set of properties which are necessary to a human being—namely, a rational
nature and an animal nature.
• The fulfilment of its essence is its telos: its end or goal.
• The goal of human life is the fulfilment of our essence → rational animal.
Page 1 of 26
,- The Nicomachean Ethics is the name given to Aristotle's best-known work on
ethics. Aristotle begins the work by positing that there exists some ultimate good
toward which, in the final analysis, all human actions ultimately aim.
• What is the goal (end) of politics? The end (or goal) of politics is the best of
ends; and the main concern of politics is to engender a certain character in the
citizens and to make them good and disposed to perform noble actions.
• Every action is aimed at some good yet these aims vary between individual and
context. Aristotle argues this by going through the list of what many may consider
the highest good of actions; for example pursuing wealth, honor, or wisdom.
• According to Aristotle, pleasure is not the aim of every human action,
because not every pleasure is good. (Remember, the highest good is intrinsically
good). The pleasure which is found in some forms of activity may be good, and the
pleasure which is found in other forms of activity may be bad.
• Aristotle says that eudaimonia means doing and living well. It is a moral
philosophy that defines right action as that which leads to the well-being of the
individual, thus holding well-being as having essential value.
• Happiness is not pleasure/not honour. It is related to the fulfilment of our
essence.
• The other definition of man given by Aristotle in “Politics” and the “Nicomachean
Ethics”, namely zoon logon echon, translated in Latin as animal rationale. It’s just
a way of logically distinguishing the specie man or human being from the genus
“zoe”, through a different specie, in this case “logon echon” (open to the use of
language/reason.
- Aristotle believed that you can't act without reason, and that human good lies in
good actions. Virtue is a disposition that enables you to perform good actions.
Happiness is the activity of the soul according to a complete virtue (in a life that
has come to completion). It is a continuous way of life.
- There are two kinds of virtues, related to different parts of the soul:
1. The desiring/striving part (ethical virtues): are dispositions like courage,
modesty, calmness, friendliness, etc.
2. The rational part (intellectual virtues): are the deep personal qualities or
character strengths required for good thinking and learning.
- Virtues are in the middle between two extremes; too much, too little / exaggeration
– falling short. Virtue is an intentional disposition striking the middle/the mean: a
way of relating, not what you feel, but the way you feel – and the way you act. The
goal is the performance of virtue itself; courage – being couragious, friendliness –
Page 2 of 26
, being friendly etc. It is a joy to perform a virtue: pleasure is the presence of the
thing you love. A virtue is stable and is not dependent of circumstances.
- What is a good action, according to Aristotle?
• Depends on the circumstance - i.e. the situation.
• What needs to be done, how it should be done, for whom, the means, when etcs.
• So not someone's will is decisive, but the situation he/she is in.
• What is the ultimate goal/ends? Happiness - the good life as a whole.
• The unity of the course of someone's life and his/her way of life.
- Virtue is an intentional disposition attaining the mean. How is that possible? It
depends on good deliberation (reason). What is good deliberation? Three
elements:
1. Ability to see what is going on - perception of the facts.
2. To know what is good in general - guidelines of what to do.
3. The actual deliberation as a form of reasoning in which 1 and 2 are determining
and correcting each other!
- Aristotle argues three kinds of knowledge:
1. Scientific
2. Technical
3. Practical
- For Aristotle, prudence or practical wisdom is a virtue of thought that is practical
rather than theoretical and deliberative rather than intuitive. It is the intellectual
virtue that perfects reasoning in regard to decision making in the realm of human
action. It was the practical intellectual virtue.
- Complete virtue = Justice: living with other people: doing the right thing for
yourself and towards others (individual/community). Here, love and friendship are
of vital importance. Traditional virtues here are courage, modesty, justice and
prudence.
- Alasdair MacIntyre examines the idea of virtue:
• MacIntyre emphasises the importance of moral goods defined in respect to a
community engaged in a 'practice'—which he calls 'internal goods' or 'goods of
excellence'—rather than focusing on practice-independent obligation of a moral
agent (deontological ethics) or the consequences of a particular act (utilitarianism).
• He believed that politics should be a practice with internal goods, but as it is now
it only leads to external goods. Some win, others lose; there is no good achieved
that is good for the whole community; cheating and exploitation are frequent, and
Page 3 of 26
