PHLT 305 Exam 2 with correct answers 2024

Germ theory of disease - answer-linked microorganisms to the causation of disease - debunked the theory of spontaneous generation Miasma - answer-Airborne toxic vapor composed of malodorous particles from decomposing fetid materials that people thought caused diseases in the middle ages to the 1800's Necessary cause - answer-A factor whose presence is required for the occurrence of the event Sufficient cause - answer-a cause that is sufficient by itself to produce the effect Sufficient but not necessary - answer-Workers who have exposures to a carcinogenic chemical can develop cancer, but also excessive exposures to radiation from nuclear power plant can also induce cancer Necessary but not sufficient - answer-Seasonal influenza - the flu virus will have interacted with people who got the flu, but also not everyone who is exposed to the virus will get it Neither necessary nor sufficient - answer-Chronic diseases like coronary heart disease that can have multiple contributing causes but none can cause the disease by itself Probabilistic Causality - answer-A cause is associated with the increased probability that an effect will happen Hypothesis - answer-any conjecture cast in a form that will allow it to be tested and refuted Operationalization - answer-the process of assigning a precise method for measuring a term being examined for use in a particular study Criteria of causality - answer-One of the central concerns of epi is to be able to assert that a causal association exists between an exposure factor and disease in the host A.B. Hill's criteria of causality - answer-Strength, consistency, specificity, temporality, biological gradient, plausibility, coherence, experiment, analogy Multivariate Causality - answer-Many types of causal relationships that are involved with the etiology of diseases involve more than one causal factor. statistical significance - answer-assertion that an observed association is not likely to have occurred as a result of chance Inference - answer-The process of passing from observations and axioms to generalizations point estimate - answer-a single value chosen to represent the population parameter confidence interval - answer-a range of values so defined that there is a specified probability that the value of a parameter lies within it. power - answer-the ability of a study to demonstrate an association if one exists Ecologic studies - answer-a study in which the units of analysis are populations or groups of people rather than individuals ecologic correlation - answer-an association between two variables (exposure and outcome) measured at the group level advantages of ecologic studies - answer--may provide information about the context of health -can be performed when individual-level measurements are not available -can be conducted rapidly and with minimal resources disadvantages of ecologic studies - answer-Ecologic fallacy Imprecise measurement of exposure ecologic fallacy - answer-an erroneous inference that may occur because an association observed between variables on an aggregate level does not necessarily represent or reflect the association that exists at an individual level case-control studies - answer--subjects are defined on the basis of the presence or absence of an outcome of interest -cases are those individuals who have the outcome or disease of interest, whereas the controls do not When to conduct a case-control study - answer-- the outcome of interest is rare - multiple exposures may be associated with a single outcome - funding or time is limited advantages of case control studies - answer--can be used to study low-prevalence conditions -relatively quick and easy to complete -usually inexpensive -involve smaller number of subjects disadvantages of case control studies - answer--measurement of exposure may be inaccurate -representativeness of cases and controls may be unknown -provide indirect estimates of risk -the temporal relationship between exposure factor and outcome cannot always be ascertained Odds ratio - answer-a measure of the association between frequency of exposure and frequency of outcome used in case-control studies cohort studies - answer-tracks the incidence of a specific disease or other outcome over time prospective cohort study - answer-Subjects are classified according to their exposure to a factor of interest and then are observed over time to document the occurrence of new cases (incidence) of disease or other health events. retrospective cohort study - answer-Makes use of historical data to determine exposure level at some baseline in the past. Follow-up for subsequent occurrences of disease between baseline and present is performed. Advantages of cohort studies - answer--permit direct observation of risk -exposure factor is well defined -can study exposures that are uncommon in the population -the temporal relationship between factor and outcome is known` disadvantages of cohort studies - answer--Expensive and time consuming -Complicated and difficult to carry out -Subjects may be lost to follow-up during the course of the study -Exposures can be misclassified relative risk - answer-The ratio of the incidence rate of a disease or health outcome in an exposed group to the incidence rate of the disease or condition in a non exposed group RR = [a/(a + b)] / [c/(c + d)] experimental studies - answer-studies in which the independent variables are directly manipulated and the effects on the dependent variable are examined clinical trials - answer-a research activity that involves the administration of a test regimen to humans to evaluate its efficacy and safety Randomized control trial - answer-clinical trial in which a group of individuals is randomly assigned to an experimental group and a control group Components of a RCT - answer-study sample, random assignments to study conditions, blinding or masking to prevent bias, comparable measurement of outcomes in treatments and control groups community intervention - answer-an intervention designed for the purpose of educational and behavioral changes at the population level Challenges to the Validity of Study Designs - answer-1) External validity 2) Sampling Error 3) Internal validity 4) Bias external validity - answer-Refers to generalizability of study's results to other subjects and situations sampling error - answer-a type of error that arises when values obtained for a sample differ from the values and of the parent population internal validity - answer-the degree to which the study has used methodologically sound procedures bias - answer-prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. types of bias include - answer-hawthorne effect, recall bias, selection bias, healthy worker effect, confounding Hawthorne effect - answer-participants' behavioral changes as a result of their knowledge of being in a study recall bias - answer-cases may remember an exposure more clearly than controls selection bias - answer-distortions that result from procedures used to select subjects and from factors that influence participation in the study healthy worker effect - answer-observation that employed populations tend to have a lower mortality experience than the general population confounding - answer-occurs when two variables are associated in such a way that their effects on a response variable cannot be distinguished from each other 3 core functions of public health - answer-1. Assessment 2. Policy Development 3. Assurance 10 essential public health services - answer--monitor health -diagnose/investigate -inform, educate, empower -mobilize community partnerships -develop policies -enforce laws -link to/provide care -assure competent workforce -evaluate -research health policy - answer-One that pertains to the health arena, for example, in provision of healthcare services, dentistry, medicine, or public health policy cycle - answer-problem definition, agenda setting, policy establishment, policy implementation, policy assessment evidence based policy - answer-refers to the adoption of policies, laws, and programs that are supported by empirical data Cost-effectiveness analysis - answer-form of program evaluation that assesses outcomes in terms of the costs involved in developing, running, and completing the program Decision Analysis - answer-Involves developing a set of possible choices and stating the likely outcomes linked with those choices, each of which may have associated risks and benefits risk assessment steps - answer-hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment, risk characterization Hazard Identification - answer-inherent capability of an agent or situation to have an adverse effect dose-response assessment - answer-the measurement of the relationship between the amount of exposure and the occurrence of the unwanted health effects exposure assessment - answer-identifies populations exposed to the toxicant, describes their composition and size, and examines the roots, magnitudes, frequencies, and durations of such exposures risk characterization - answer-develops estimates of the number of excess unwarranted health events expected at different time intervals at each level of exposure Risk Management - answer-consists of actions taken to control exposures to toxic chemicals in the environment trans fats - answer-An unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds. Ethics - answer-norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior adherence to ethical norms in research - answer--Promotes the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error -Promotes values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness -Helps to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public -Helps build public support for research -Promotes a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety Tuskegee Syphilis Study - answer-A study in which the U.S. Public Health Service and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention followed the progression of syphilis in hundreds of poor African American men in Tuskegee, Alabama, without providing them with a known cure for the disease. ethic guidelines - answer-minimizing risks and protecting the welfare of research subjects obtaining informed consent submitting studies for ethical review maintaining public trust meeting obligations to communities Major infectious diseases - answer-smallpox malaria spanish flu bubonic plague cholera aids typhus spanish flu - answer-killed mostly healthy young adults spread during wwi 1/3 of global population infected 10-20% of the infected people were killed the plague - answer-Yersinia pestis 3 major pandemics -Justinian plague -black death -modern historical impact of communicable diseases - answer-slowed urbanization and industrial development mass death of indigenous pops in americas 1918 flu killed >50 million people economic impact of communicable diseases - answer-HIV epidemic reduced SA's GDP by 17% SARS cost east asia 15 billion increase demands for quinine cultural impact of communicable diseases - answer-disease commonly featured in artworks, including paintings, books, theater and operas goals of infectious disease epidemiology - answer--understand frequency and distribution of disease in time and space -identify disease/outbreak origins -clarify determinants of disease -develop effective prevention and control strategies infectious agents - answer-bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi case definition - answer-a set of uniform criteria used to define a disease for public health surveillance social epidemiology - answer-the discipline that examines the social distribution and social determinants of states of health Behavioral Epidemiology - answer-study of the role of behavioral factors in health stress - answer-the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging PTSD - answer-an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience symptoms of PTSD - answer-- Flashbacks or bad dreams - Emotional numbness - Intense guilt or worry - Angry outbursts - Feeling 'on edge' - Avoiding thoughts and situations that remind them [people] of the trauma tobacco use - answer-Cigarette smoking and other forms of tobacco use increase the risk of many forms of adverse health outcomes prevalence of smokers - answer-white women have highest rate among women adult men went from 50% to 23% from 1965 to 2005 women went from 30% to 19% secondhand smoke - answer-refers to involuntary breathing of cigarette smoke by nonsmokers in an environment where there are cigarette smokers present alcohol consumption - answer-Data from CDC's National Center for Health Statistics indicate that alcohol consumption is a significant cause of mortality in the United States. 31000 people died of alcohol induced causes in the US in 2014 heavy drinking - answer-Men: >15 drinks/week Women: >8 drinks/week binge drinking - answer-drinking five or more alcoholic drinks at one sitting (women is 4 or more) youth alcohol consumption - answer-Among high school students, a total of 18.6% of males and 16.8% of females consumed five or more drinks in a row during the past 30-day period (2015). In 2013, 39.0% of full-time college students and 33.4% of young people not in college were heavy drinkers. substance abuse - answer-illicit drugs include: marijuana, meth, heroin, opioids, psycho therapeutic drugs meth - answer--600,000 people aged 12 or older reported past-month usage -3.0% usage among high school students highly addictive results of meth - answer--rise in body temperature -psychotic symptoms -crank bug -meth mouth meth mouth - answer-Informal name for the rampant tooth decay caused by heavy methamphetamine use BMI for overweight - answer-25-29.9 BMI for obese - answer-30+ epidemiology of mental health - answer-the study of the distribution of mental disorders and distress across social groups psychiatric epidemiology - answer-- Studies the occurrence of mental disorders in the population - Variables include age, sex, and social class - The discipline measures the frequency of occurrence of mental disorders and factors related to their etiology DSM-5 - answer-the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. Serious mental illness - answer-Mental illness resulting in profound functional impairment which substantially interferes with or limits one or more major life activities. Comorbidity (in mental disorders) - answer-The simultaneous presence in a person of two or more mental disorders Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) - answer--a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors -affected 1 in 59 babies in 2018