Different types of data used in
sociological research
Primary and secondary data:
Primary data is produced by the researcher in their research by doing this researchers are
more likely to find out what exactly they want to know about a particular issue.
Secondary data existed before research began and include data from official statistics and
media sources – this can save time and money as research and data has already been
collected for the researcher and are mostly very accessible, however, a sociologist has no
control over the collection or quality of the data or required information may not already
exist
Quantitative and Qualitative data:
Quantitative data – data in the form of numbers or percentages e.g. official statistics – they
are useful for measuring strength of possible relationships between various factors and
sociologists can compare social groups and measure trends over time
Qualitative data – all types of data that are not in the form of numbers e.g. pictures, written
sources, quotations from interviews, descriptive data from observations – gives a richer and
more in-depth picture and shows meaning behind statistics
Most researchers mix both qualitative and quantitative data
Validity and reliability of data:
Data are valid if they present a true and accurate description or measurement e.
Data are reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same
results
Different theoretical approaches:
Positivism – favour quantitative data and attempts to measure behaviour through number
form and makes it possible to measure strength of relationships and correlation
They tend to make generalisations about human behaviour to do this they study a
representative sample of the population
Interpretivism – understanding human behaviour involves seeing the world through the
eyes of those being studied favour participant observation and unstructured interviews
,The strengths and limitations of
different quantitative research
Questionnaires
- There are two different types of questions closed questions and open-ended
questions
o Closed are easy to quantify and are suitable for statistical analysis
o Open-ended questions are more appropriate for data on meanings and beliefs
- When constructing questionnaires questions must be clear and unambiguous as
different answers should show the difference between the respondents there may
be ethical issues (participants feelings) and so a pilot study is recommended
- In order to measure concepts such as poverty, inequality or power it must be
operationalised
- The answers to closed questions are pre-coded and the answers to open ended
questions are coded after or put into categories for written answers but written
answers will not always neatly fit into a category
- Response rates widely vary and a low response (lack of time/interest) rate may result
in an unrepresentative sample and therefore findings may be biased
Structured interview
- The same questions are read in the same order to all participants and most
questions are designed to produce answers that do not require explanations
- Reasons for non-response to structured interviews:
o Failure to make contact because of relocation, holiday, prison, away from
home at time researcher tries to make contact
o Contact is made but the interview cannot be conducted because they are ill
or experiencing a personal tragedy
o The person refuses to take part due to lake of time, interest or dislike of
researcher
Experiments
, Laboratory experiments
- Designed to test a hypothesis
- Variable and results of a laboratory experiment are usually quantified
- Correlation can be spotted between variables however correlation doesn’t always
mean causation so the ability to control variables in the closed system of the
laboratory helps researcher to judge whether correlation is causation or coincidental
or due to a third factor
Field experiments
- Field experiments take place in everyday settings such as classrooms, factories,
streets
- Research example: Mary Sissons (1970) Researching social class and interaction
between strangers
-
Qualitative research methods
Semi-structured interviews
Based around same set of questions – advantages of structured interview
Allows interviewer to probe adding depth and detail to answers – however this means a
loss of standardisation and comparability as every interview is different and participants
may ultimately end up answering different questions
Unstructured interviews
More free-flowing and rather like a guided conversation with a list of topics or prompts
interviewer wants to cover
Relaxed atmosphere and informal
Interview process:
o Standard advice to be non-directive – avoid leading and allow participants
to express themselves
o Important to establish rapport
o Probing used to get participants to clarify or develop answers and
sociologists must be careful not to use it to direct participants to certain
answers
o Usually advised to focus on questions but Rosalind Edwards and Janet
Holland (2013) point out that listening to participants is key to probing
and following up answers
Strengths of unstructured interviews:
sociological research
Primary and secondary data:
Primary data is produced by the researcher in their research by doing this researchers are
more likely to find out what exactly they want to know about a particular issue.
Secondary data existed before research began and include data from official statistics and
media sources – this can save time and money as research and data has already been
collected for the researcher and are mostly very accessible, however, a sociologist has no
control over the collection or quality of the data or required information may not already
exist
Quantitative and Qualitative data:
Quantitative data – data in the form of numbers or percentages e.g. official statistics – they
are useful for measuring strength of possible relationships between various factors and
sociologists can compare social groups and measure trends over time
Qualitative data – all types of data that are not in the form of numbers e.g. pictures, written
sources, quotations from interviews, descriptive data from observations – gives a richer and
more in-depth picture and shows meaning behind statistics
Most researchers mix both qualitative and quantitative data
Validity and reliability of data:
Data are valid if they present a true and accurate description or measurement e.
Data are reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same
results
Different theoretical approaches:
Positivism – favour quantitative data and attempts to measure behaviour through number
form and makes it possible to measure strength of relationships and correlation
They tend to make generalisations about human behaviour to do this they study a
representative sample of the population
Interpretivism – understanding human behaviour involves seeing the world through the
eyes of those being studied favour participant observation and unstructured interviews
,The strengths and limitations of
different quantitative research
Questionnaires
- There are two different types of questions closed questions and open-ended
questions
o Closed are easy to quantify and are suitable for statistical analysis
o Open-ended questions are more appropriate for data on meanings and beliefs
- When constructing questionnaires questions must be clear and unambiguous as
different answers should show the difference between the respondents there may
be ethical issues (participants feelings) and so a pilot study is recommended
- In order to measure concepts such as poverty, inequality or power it must be
operationalised
- The answers to closed questions are pre-coded and the answers to open ended
questions are coded after or put into categories for written answers but written
answers will not always neatly fit into a category
- Response rates widely vary and a low response (lack of time/interest) rate may result
in an unrepresentative sample and therefore findings may be biased
Structured interview
- The same questions are read in the same order to all participants and most
questions are designed to produce answers that do not require explanations
- Reasons for non-response to structured interviews:
o Failure to make contact because of relocation, holiday, prison, away from
home at time researcher tries to make contact
o Contact is made but the interview cannot be conducted because they are ill
or experiencing a personal tragedy
o The person refuses to take part due to lake of time, interest or dislike of
researcher
Experiments
, Laboratory experiments
- Designed to test a hypothesis
- Variable and results of a laboratory experiment are usually quantified
- Correlation can be spotted between variables however correlation doesn’t always
mean causation so the ability to control variables in the closed system of the
laboratory helps researcher to judge whether correlation is causation or coincidental
or due to a third factor
Field experiments
- Field experiments take place in everyday settings such as classrooms, factories,
streets
- Research example: Mary Sissons (1970) Researching social class and interaction
between strangers
-
Qualitative research methods
Semi-structured interviews
Based around same set of questions – advantages of structured interview
Allows interviewer to probe adding depth and detail to answers – however this means a
loss of standardisation and comparability as every interview is different and participants
may ultimately end up answering different questions
Unstructured interviews
More free-flowing and rather like a guided conversation with a list of topics or prompts
interviewer wants to cover
Relaxed atmosphere and informal
Interview process:
o Standard advice to be non-directive – avoid leading and allow participants
to express themselves
o Important to establish rapport
o Probing used to get participants to clarify or develop answers and
sociologists must be careful not to use it to direct participants to certain
answers
o Usually advised to focus on questions but Rosalind Edwards and Janet
Holland (2013) point out that listening to participants is key to probing
and following up answers
Strengths of unstructured interviews:
