Summary Quantitative Research
Methods
Table of Content
Ch. 2 The Scientific Approach to Communication Research ................................. 3
Theory .......................................................................................................................................................................................3
Predictions / hypotheses .................................................................................................................................................3
Observations .........................................................................................................................................................................4
Empirical generalisation ..................................................................................................................................................4
Ch. 3 Research Ethics .................................................................................................. 4
Special Ethical Issues for Research .........................................................................................................................5
Ch. 5 Research Structure and Literature Reviews ................................................... 6
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................................................6
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................6
Literature review ..................................................................................................................................................................8
Hypotheses ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Research questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Method Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Result section .................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Discussion section........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Ch. 9 Measurement ..................................................................................................... 13
Types of scales and its purpose .............................................................................................................................. 13
Conceptualisation and operationalization ........................................................................................................... 13
Golden rules ....................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Ch. 11 Survey Research ............................................................................................. 14
Using a survey ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Five steps for conducting a good survey ....................................................................................................... 15
Disseminating your surveys .................................................................................................................................. 16
Interviewing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1 Face-to-face interviewing ............................................................................................................................... 17
2 Telephone interviewing ................................................................................................................................... 17
Self-administration........................................................................................................................................................... 17
Problem areas associated with survey research: response rate ............................................................ 18
Unit nonresponse ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Item nonresponse....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Effects of nonresponse ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Improving response rates....................................................................................................................................... 19
Translating surveys into other languages ........................................................................................................... 19
Semantic equivalence .............................................................................................................................................. 19
Conceptual equivalence.......................................................................................................................................... 19
Normative equivalence ............................................................................................................................................ 19
Ways in which researchers can complete a survey translation .............................................................. 19
1 Simple Direct Translation ............................................................................................................................... 19
2 Modified Direct Translation ........................................................................................................................... 20
1
, 3 Translation / back-translation ....................................................................................................................... 20
4 Parallel Blind Technique ................................................................................................................................. 20
5 Random Probe ..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Ch. 13 Experimental Design ...................................................................................... 20
Rationale for Experimental Research ................................................................................................................... 20
Aspects of Experimental Design .............................................................................................................................. 21
1 Random Assignment ........................................................................................................................................ 21
2 Manipulation of the Independent Variable............................................................................................. 21
3 Measurement of the Dependent Variable.............................................................................................. 22
4 Controlling an experiment .............................................................................................................................. 22
Conducting an Experiment ......................................................................................................................................... 23
1 Introducing the experiment and obtaining consent........................................................................... 23
2 Random assignment ......................................................................................................................................... 23
3 Manipulate the independent variable ....................................................................................................... 23
4 Measure the dependent variable................................................................................................................ 23
5 Debriefing ............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Threats to experimental validity ............................................................................................................................... 24
Ch. 11 Sampling methods.......................................................................................... 24
Types of probability sampling techniques ..................................................................................................... 25
Types of non-probability sampling techniques............................................................................................ 25
Sampling bias ............................................................................................................................................................... 26
2
,Ch. 2 The Scientific Approach to Communication Research
The scientific method includes four primary steps to the scientific process: 1) theories, 2)
development of predictions about the relationship between phenomenon that come in the
form of hypotheses, 3) observations and 4) empirical generalisations.
Theory
Theory – a proposed explanation for how a set of natural phenomena will occur, capable of
making predication about the phenomena for the future, and capable of being falsified
through empirical observation
Explanation – an attempt to satisfy one’s curiosity about an observable event
1. Appealing to authority: explanation centres around the authority
E.g. the bushmen referring to their Gods when they got the Coke bottle
2. Label the phenomena: label / identify the phenomena in order to explain the situation
E.g. explain a child why we wash our hands because of bacteria
3. Evoke empathy: explain how the phenomena (action) was based on good, just or
moral reasons
E.g. Bush invading Iraq because Iraq had weapons of mass destruction
4. Define terms / give examples: use synonyms to understand the phenomena
5. Appeal to general empirical rules: explanation of phenomena by
E.g. the reaction why our bodies produce sweaty hands when we are nervous
Empiricism – the belief that science is only acceptable insofar as the phenomenon in
question can be ‘sensed’ by average people
Predictions / hypotheses
The second step in the scientific method is the development of predictions about the
relationship between phenomena that come in the form of hypotheses.
Hypotheses – the conclusion that occurs at the end of a series of propositions
Proposition – a statement that either confirms something or denies
Conditional propositions
1. Antecedents: ‘if’ statement
E.g. ‘If I was born in the USA…’
2. Consequent: ‘then’ statement
E.g. ‘…then I am an American.’
Hypothetical propositions: syllogism
1. Major premise
E.g. All men are mortal
2. Minor premise
E.g. Socrates is a man
3. Conclusion
E.g. Therefore, Socrates is mortal
The problem with syllogisms is that if one premise is false, the conclusion can never be true.
3
, Observations
The observations part of the scientific method is where a researcher attempts to test the
hypotheses created in the previous step. The most rigorous way to test a theory is to employ
an experiment of some kind that directly allows a researcher to control a variable and then
see the ramifications of this variable.
A certain amount of error is inherent in social scientific research simply because humans
provide social scientists with too many possibilities (all react differently to the same situation)
When observing a phenomenon, researchers must take great care that their observations
are empirical, objective and controlled. Empiricism with regard to observation basically
means that scientists must make sure that what they are observing can be observed.
Objective – a scientist needs to make sure that his / her personal emotions, predication, and
biases do not get in the way of the observation.
Another aspect of objectivity is reporting exactly what one finds in research, not just what one
wants to find.
Control – researchers refer to the process where an individual both prevents personal
biases from interfering with the research study and makes sure there are no other
explanations for what is seen in the study
Empirical generalisation
The final stage in the process of the scientific method is the creation of empirical
generalisations.
Empirical generalisation – an attempt to describe a phenomenon based on what we know
about the phenomenon at this time
Often, the hypothesis does not match the conclusion. Unethical researchers may just pretend
the findings in that case did not happen, and do not present the results because of the
finding being contrary to previous research. However, even results that go against common
opinion on the subject are important.
Hasty generalisation – generalising something when not enough evidence is available to
make the generalisation
Ch. 3 Research Ethics
Determining what is ‘ethical’ falls under two tracks of thinking:
1. Theological: determine the rightness / wrongness of a behaviour by searching specific
religious texts, oral teachings, or traditions
2. Philosophical: ‘what should a person do?’
4
Methods
Table of Content
Ch. 2 The Scientific Approach to Communication Research ................................. 3
Theory .......................................................................................................................................................................................3
Predictions / hypotheses .................................................................................................................................................3
Observations .........................................................................................................................................................................4
Empirical generalisation ..................................................................................................................................................4
Ch. 3 Research Ethics .................................................................................................. 4
Special Ethical Issues for Research .........................................................................................................................5
Ch. 5 Research Structure and Literature Reviews ................................................... 6
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................................................6
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................6
Literature review ..................................................................................................................................................................8
Hypotheses ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Research questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Method Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Result section .................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Discussion section........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Ch. 9 Measurement ..................................................................................................... 13
Types of scales and its purpose .............................................................................................................................. 13
Conceptualisation and operationalization ........................................................................................................... 13
Golden rules ....................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Ch. 11 Survey Research ............................................................................................. 14
Using a survey ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Five steps for conducting a good survey ....................................................................................................... 15
Disseminating your surveys .................................................................................................................................. 16
Interviewing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1 Face-to-face interviewing ............................................................................................................................... 17
2 Telephone interviewing ................................................................................................................................... 17
Self-administration........................................................................................................................................................... 17
Problem areas associated with survey research: response rate ............................................................ 18
Unit nonresponse ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Item nonresponse....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Effects of nonresponse ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Improving response rates....................................................................................................................................... 19
Translating surveys into other languages ........................................................................................................... 19
Semantic equivalence .............................................................................................................................................. 19
Conceptual equivalence.......................................................................................................................................... 19
Normative equivalence ............................................................................................................................................ 19
Ways in which researchers can complete a survey translation .............................................................. 19
1 Simple Direct Translation ............................................................................................................................... 19
2 Modified Direct Translation ........................................................................................................................... 20
1
, 3 Translation / back-translation ....................................................................................................................... 20
4 Parallel Blind Technique ................................................................................................................................. 20
5 Random Probe ..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Ch. 13 Experimental Design ...................................................................................... 20
Rationale for Experimental Research ................................................................................................................... 20
Aspects of Experimental Design .............................................................................................................................. 21
1 Random Assignment ........................................................................................................................................ 21
2 Manipulation of the Independent Variable............................................................................................. 21
3 Measurement of the Dependent Variable.............................................................................................. 22
4 Controlling an experiment .............................................................................................................................. 22
Conducting an Experiment ......................................................................................................................................... 23
1 Introducing the experiment and obtaining consent........................................................................... 23
2 Random assignment ......................................................................................................................................... 23
3 Manipulate the independent variable ....................................................................................................... 23
4 Measure the dependent variable................................................................................................................ 23
5 Debriefing ............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Threats to experimental validity ............................................................................................................................... 24
Ch. 11 Sampling methods.......................................................................................... 24
Types of probability sampling techniques ..................................................................................................... 25
Types of non-probability sampling techniques............................................................................................ 25
Sampling bias ............................................................................................................................................................... 26
2
,Ch. 2 The Scientific Approach to Communication Research
The scientific method includes four primary steps to the scientific process: 1) theories, 2)
development of predictions about the relationship between phenomenon that come in the
form of hypotheses, 3) observations and 4) empirical generalisations.
Theory
Theory – a proposed explanation for how a set of natural phenomena will occur, capable of
making predication about the phenomena for the future, and capable of being falsified
through empirical observation
Explanation – an attempt to satisfy one’s curiosity about an observable event
1. Appealing to authority: explanation centres around the authority
E.g. the bushmen referring to their Gods when they got the Coke bottle
2. Label the phenomena: label / identify the phenomena in order to explain the situation
E.g. explain a child why we wash our hands because of bacteria
3. Evoke empathy: explain how the phenomena (action) was based on good, just or
moral reasons
E.g. Bush invading Iraq because Iraq had weapons of mass destruction
4. Define terms / give examples: use synonyms to understand the phenomena
5. Appeal to general empirical rules: explanation of phenomena by
E.g. the reaction why our bodies produce sweaty hands when we are nervous
Empiricism – the belief that science is only acceptable insofar as the phenomenon in
question can be ‘sensed’ by average people
Predictions / hypotheses
The second step in the scientific method is the development of predictions about the
relationship between phenomena that come in the form of hypotheses.
Hypotheses – the conclusion that occurs at the end of a series of propositions
Proposition – a statement that either confirms something or denies
Conditional propositions
1. Antecedents: ‘if’ statement
E.g. ‘If I was born in the USA…’
2. Consequent: ‘then’ statement
E.g. ‘…then I am an American.’
Hypothetical propositions: syllogism
1. Major premise
E.g. All men are mortal
2. Minor premise
E.g. Socrates is a man
3. Conclusion
E.g. Therefore, Socrates is mortal
The problem with syllogisms is that if one premise is false, the conclusion can never be true.
3
, Observations
The observations part of the scientific method is where a researcher attempts to test the
hypotheses created in the previous step. The most rigorous way to test a theory is to employ
an experiment of some kind that directly allows a researcher to control a variable and then
see the ramifications of this variable.
A certain amount of error is inherent in social scientific research simply because humans
provide social scientists with too many possibilities (all react differently to the same situation)
When observing a phenomenon, researchers must take great care that their observations
are empirical, objective and controlled. Empiricism with regard to observation basically
means that scientists must make sure that what they are observing can be observed.
Objective – a scientist needs to make sure that his / her personal emotions, predication, and
biases do not get in the way of the observation.
Another aspect of objectivity is reporting exactly what one finds in research, not just what one
wants to find.
Control – researchers refer to the process where an individual both prevents personal
biases from interfering with the research study and makes sure there are no other
explanations for what is seen in the study
Empirical generalisation
The final stage in the process of the scientific method is the creation of empirical
generalisations.
Empirical generalisation – an attempt to describe a phenomenon based on what we know
about the phenomenon at this time
Often, the hypothesis does not match the conclusion. Unethical researchers may just pretend
the findings in that case did not happen, and do not present the results because of the
finding being contrary to previous research. However, even results that go against common
opinion on the subject are important.
Hasty generalisation – generalising something when not enough evidence is available to
make the generalisation
Ch. 3 Research Ethics
Determining what is ‘ethical’ falls under two tracks of thinking:
1. Theological: determine the rightness / wrongness of a behaviour by searching specific
religious texts, oral teachings, or traditions
2. Philosophical: ‘what should a person do?’
4
