C273 STUDY GUIDE- INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY – Guaranteed 100% PASS

C273 STUDY GUIDE- INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY – Guaranteed 100% PASS Auguste Conte *** Suggested we apply scientific method to social world, which is known as Positivism Viewed society as a living organism, similar to an animals body - must function together to function smoothly. (functional analysis) Herbert Spencer *** *Called 2nd founder of sociology *disagreed with Conte, believed sociologists should not guide social reform *societies are evolving from lower to higher form *society's most capable and intelligent members service - the less capable die out *fittest members produce a more advanced society "The survival of the fittest" or "Social Darwinism" (credited to Darwin because he applied it to organisms. Viewed society as a living organism, similar to an animals body - must function together to function smoothly. (functional analysis) Karl Marx *** *believed the engine of human history is class conflict *society is made up of 2 classes *economics is a central force in social change *Bourgeoisie - capitalist own the means of production, money, land, factories and machines *Proletariat - workers; *workers will unite and bread their chains of bondage *introduced Conflict Theory *did not think of himself as a sociologist Bourgeoisie *** Capitalists they own the means of production - money, land, factories, and machines. Proletariat *** Workers Emile Durkheim *** *succeeded in getting sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline *how social forces affect peoples behavior *Social Integration when all parts of society full their part it is in a "normal" state, if they do not fulfill their function it is in an "abnormal" or pathological state. (functional analysis) Social Integration *** Degree to which people are tied to their social groups. People with weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide Applying Durkheim *** Patterns of behavior or recurring patterns or events Max Weber *** *used cross culture and historical materials to trace the cause of social change and how social groups affect peoples orientation to life *disagreed with Karl Marx *Roman Catholics taught to hold on to tradition, protestant taught to embrace change *Protestant ethic Protestant Ethic *** *looked for sign they were in Gods good grace *financial success-live frugal lives, saving ant investing money "the spirit of capitalism" This brought about capitalism Harriet Martineau *** *did writings because women were to focus on church, cooking, children and clothes *early female sociologist *viewed sociology as a path to reform and improve society (stop lynchings, integrate immigrants, improve working conditions) W.E.B. DuBois *** black sociologist Jane Adams *** Sociologist and social reformer *came from wealth and privilege *founded Hull House with Ellen Gates Starr C. Wright Mills *** pushed sociologist to go back to push social reform Basic (or pure) sociology *** sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups Applied Sociology *** the use of sociology to solve problems from classroom integration and family relationships to crime and pollution Public Sociology *** applying sociology for the public good; especially sociological perspective (how things relate to one another) to guide politicians and policy makers Theory *** general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how 2 or more facts are related to one another 3 major theories *** Symbolic Interaction Functional analysis Conflict Theory Symbolic Interaction *** theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world and communicate with one another Analyze how social life depends on the ways we define ourselves and others. Study face to face interactions, examine how people make sense of their live and place in it i.e. sister vs girlfriend, brother vs boyfriend George Herbert os one of the founders Functional Analysis (functionalism, structural functionalism) *** theoretical from work in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that when fulfilled contributes to society's equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism Society is made up of a whole unit of interrelated parts that work together. Sociologists that had functional analysis theories *** Auguste Conte Herbert Spencer Emiline Durkheim Robert Melton Robert Melton *** dismissed comparing society to a living organism, but maintained the essence of functionalism used the terms functions, dysfunctions, manifest, latent, and latent dysfunctions Function *** refer to beneficial consequences of people's actions (help keep a group in balance) i.e. family running a farm can be manifest or latent Dysfunctions *** harmful consequences of people's actions (they undermine the systems equilibrium manifest *** an action is INTENDED to help some part of the system latent *** an UNINTENDED consequence that help a system adjust latent dysfunctions *** actions UNINTENTIALLY hurt a system Conflict Theory *** suggests that society is composed of groups that compete with one another for scarce resources on the surface it shows cooperation, under the surface struggle for power Karl Marx - founder of conflict theory witness the Industrial Revolution 8 steps of Research Model *** 1-select a topic (what do you want to learn about) 2-define the problem (what do you want to learn about the topic) 3-Reviewing the literature (helps pinpoint questions) 4-Formulate a hypothesis (what do you expect to find according to predictions from a theory) 5-Choose a research method 6-Collecting the data (assure the validity and reliability) 7-Analyzing the results 8-Sharing the results Validity *** extent to which an operational definition measures what it is intended to measure reliability *** extent to which research produces consistent or dependable results Research Methods *** 1-Surveys 2-Participant Observation 3-Case Studies 4-Secondary Analysis 5-Analysis of Documents 6-experiments 7-Unobtrusive measures Research Model Surveys *** collection of data by having people answer a series of questions and selection a sample narrow population (a target group to be studied (high school males) Select a sample (individuals intended to represent the population to be studied) ask natural questions Establish rapport random sample *** a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the survey stratified random sample *** a sample from selected subgroups of the target population (freshmen and seniors) respondants *** people who respond to a survey Types of survey questions *** -closed ended questions (questions followed by a list of possible answers) -Open ended questions - respondents answer in their own words Research Model Participant Observation *** researcher participates in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting For example, if your campus has a crisis intervention center, you may be able to observe victims of spouse abuse from the time they report the attack through their participation in counseling. With good rapport, you may be able to spend time with them in other settings. This, in turn, may give you insight into how to improve college counseling services. Research Model Case Studies *** Intensive analysis of a single event, situation or individual Research Model Secondary Analysis *** the analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers Research Model Analysis of documents *** examine books, newspapers, diaries, bank records, police reports, immigration files, lets.. also includes video and audio recordings Research Model experiments *** use of controlled and experimental groups and dependent and undefended variables to test causation experimental group *** the group subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable control group *** subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable independent variable *** a factor that causes a change in another variable dependent variable *** a factor that is changed by an independent variable Research Model unobtrusive measures *** ways of observing people so they don't know they are being studied Culture *** the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors and material objects that characterize a group and are passed from 1 generation to the next material culture *** material objects that distinguish a group of people. i.e. art, jewelry, buildings, utensils, machines, hairstyles, cotton non-material culture *** a groups way of thinking and doing- beliefs, values and other assumptions about the world it's common patterns of behavior, including language and other forms of interaction, also called symbolic culture Culture Shock *** the disorientation that people feel when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their "taken-for-granted" assumptions of life Ethnocentrism *** Belief that own culture is the most superior, use of own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their value norms and behaviors cultural relativism *** not judging a culture but trying to understand it on it's own terms Quantitive Analysis *** measures traits or behaviors that can be numerically calculated Qualitative Analysis *** deals with traits or behaviors that cannot be assigned a number. Ethics *** rules of principles or behaviors Macroanalysis *** focuses on broad, or large-scale, patterns in society (for example, communities, organizations, and so on). Functional and conflict theorists perform macrolevel analyses. Microanalysis *** examines smaller-scale patterns of social life, such as individual relationships. Symbolic interactionists are associated with microlevel analyses. Sociological Perspective *** Assumes there is a significant relationship between individual or group behavior and their social setting Stresses the social context in which we live Opens unfamiliar worlds and offers a fresh look at familiar worlds Looks at social location, the place people occupy because of who and where they are in society Pluralistic Society *** A society that embraces many different religious, racial, ethnic, and special interest groups. The United States is considered to be a pluralistic society. Charles Horton Cooley *** known for his theory of the "looking-glass self." Jean Piaget *** known for identifying four stages of development in reasoning. George Herbert Mead *** known for pointing out the importance of play in learning to take the role of the other. six major emotions: *** Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise Self Concept *** The idea or mental image one has of oneself, which includes an idea of one's strengths, weaknesses, and status. agents of socialization. *** People and groups that influence our behaviors, attitudes, emotions, and self concept anticipatory socialization *** learning to play a role before entering it. Social interactions are tuned to be acceptable and in line with the culture of an organization. Childhood (birth-12) *** Children are guided toward physical, emotional, and social development by their parents, who also ensure protection, comfort, and care. Adolescents (13-17) *** Adolescents face difficult issues as they try to understand who they truly are and identify their place in society. They sometimes develop their own standards of clothing, hairstyles, language, music, and other markers of identity. Young adulthood (18-29) *** During young adulthood, self-identity becomes more stable; this is often a period of high optimism. Middle-aged (30-50) *** Middle-aged adults are often sure of what they want and desire to work toward those goals; however, they tend to face challenges at this point in life, such as divorce, job layoffs, and debt, that may keep them from their goals. This is one of the most trying periods. Late Middle Years (50-65) *** People take a different view of life during this period. Individuals frequently feel dissatisfied with their lives and try to reevaluate what they should be doing. Older years (66 and beyond) *** People begin to have a sharpened awareness of shortening time. This may be combined with potential frailty and illness. Impending death becomes a consideration. Deviance *** any violation of norms, whether minor or serious. Howard S. Becker *** It is not the act itself that makes it deviant; it is society's reaction to the act. Ervin Goffman *** When a person is believed to have deviated from his or her culture's norms, other members of the culture may strongly disapprove. This powerful disapproval is called social stigma Differential Association: Edwin Sutherland *** We learn to deviate or conform to the norms according to the different groups we associate with. People are not mere pawns; individuals help produce their own orientation and shape their own selves. Example: Members of the Mafia intertwine ideas of manliness with violence. For them, killing is a measure of manhood. Some killings are done to enforce norms. Violation of omerta, the Mafia's vow of secrecy, can never be tolerated, because it threatens the very existence of the group. This also indicates how relative deviance is. Although killing is deviant in mainstream society, not to kill when rules are broken in a Mafia gang is the deviant act. Control Theory: Walter Reckless *** Everyone is propelled toward deviance, but two control systems work against the motivation to deviate: Inner controls are our capacity to withstand temptations toward deviance; they include morality, integrity, fear of punishment, and desire to do and to be good. Outer controls are people or influences that encourage us to conform to the rules. Parents or other loved ones, role models, and the police are examples of external influences over a person's behavior. Travis Hirschi noted that strong bonds to society lead to more effective inner controls. Example: Drug use is an interesting example of deviance. Suppose you are invited to a party and everyone is using marijuana. They invite you to do some with them. Reflect on the conflict you may feel here. The enticement is to take the drug to fit in with your friends, your peer group, and the setting, and also to satisfy your curiosity. The rejection of such behavior comes from your conscience, the thought of your parents, the fear of arrest, and your knowledge of the danger of using drugs. Labeling Theory *** Society describes certain people with labels, such as "mentally ill" or "delinquent" or "genius." Those labels affect the perceptions of others and those who are labeled, thus channeling them into deviance or conformity. Labels given to people affect the way they perceive themselves and how others perceive them. People begin to behave as if their labels are accurate. As a result of behaving in ways that fit their labels, people's opportunities can develop or disappear. Degradation *** In some cultures, deviant behavior leads to degradation ceremonies, where the offender is forced to live with insults every day and is marked as shameful. College hazing is an example of this, as is a recent trend by some judges to force petty criminals to publically declare their deviance by holding signs on street corners describing their crimes. Imprisonment *** Today, some deviants are considered unfit to live among law-abiding citizens and are imprisoned. A private-corporation business in building and maintaining prisons and jails thrives in the United States as a result. Medicalization *** Medical professionals attempt to medicate many forms of deviance, believing that deviance comes from mental illness and is not simply a behavioral problem. From Ritalin to Haldol to Zoloft, chemical behavior control is a booming business. Medications are sometimes necessary and useful but have often been used as population control and not as treatment. Group *** people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group aggregate *** individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who do not see themselves as belonging together category *** people, objects, and events that have similar characteristics and are classified together primary group *** a small group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association and cooperation secondary group *** compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity voluntary associations *** groups made up of people who voluntarily organize on the basis of some mutual interest; also known as voluntary memberships and voluntary organizations iron law of oligarchy *** Robert Michels' term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self perpetuating elite in-group *** a group toward which one feels loyalty out-group *** group toward which one feels antagonism reference group *** a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves social network *** the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together clique (cleek) *** a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another bureaucracy *** a formal organization with a hierarchy of authority and a clear division of labor; emphasis on impersonality of positions and written rules, communications, and records -separate levels -a division of labor -written rules goal displacement *** an organization replacing old goals with new ones; also known as goal replacement alienation *** Marx's term for workers' lack of connection to the product of their labor; caused by workers being assigned repetitive tasks on a small part of a product—this leads to a sense of powerlessness and normlessness; others use the term in the general sense of not feeling a part of something self-fulfilling stereotype *** preconceived ideas of what someone is like that lead to the person's behaving in ways that match the stereotype hidden corporate culture *** stereotypes of the traits that make for high-performing and underperforming workers group dynamics *** the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals small group *** a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other members dyad *** the smallest possible group, consisting of two persons triad *** a group of three people coalition *** the alignment of some members of a group against others leader *** someone who influences other people instrumental leader *** an individual who tries to keep the group moving toward its goals; also known as a task-oriented leader expressive leader *** an individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; also known as a socioemotional leader leadership styles *** ways in which people express their leadership authoritarian leader *** an individual who leads by giving orders democratic leader *** an individual who leads by trying to reach a consensus laissez-faire leader *** an individual who leads by being highly permissive groupthink *** a narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer and that to even suggest alternatives is a sign of disloyalty