ISSUES AND DEBATES
GENDER BIAS
Universality Underlying characteristic that can be applied to all
Gender bias This is when an individual's group is treated differently than others. In this context this
means that the research doesn’t justifiably represent the behaviour of men or women
Alpha bias Exaggerates the differences
- Freud, girls morally inferior to boys as their Superegos are weaker
- Chodorow, daughters and mothers are closer due to biological similarities
Beta bias Ignores/ minimises differences even if women excluded from research processes
- Flight or fight research, later found that women ‘tend and befriend’
Androcentrism Normal behaviour judged by a male standard
Evaluation
One limitation is the promotion of sexism within the research process. This means institutional structures (i.e.
universities with male professors teaching a majority female class) and methods of psychology may produce
biassed findings.
Another limitation is that research challenging these biases may not be published. This is because this line of
research is given less funding and published by less prestigious journals resulting in fewer scholars applying it in
their own work. This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other
biases.
CULTURAL BIAS
Universality Henrich et al. found that 96% of participants in leading journals came from
industrialised nations and 80% were psychology undergraduates - standard is set by
WEIRD participants (westernised, educated, industrialised, rich, democracies)
Cultural bias Interpreting through the ‘lens’ of your culture and ignoring the effects of cultural
differences on behaviour
Ethnocentrism Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own country. In extremes this can
include the belief of one's own superiority - prejudice.
- The Strange Situation culture bound to the US, Japanese babies more likely to
be insecurely attached likely due to the rare separation from their mothers
(Takahasi)
, Cultural relativism Ideas that norms and values can only be meaningful and understood within a specific
social and cultural context.
- Berry (1969) etic approach looks at behaviour outside of a given culture for
universal behaviour, emic is specific to studied culture
- Strange situation is an example of an imposed etic
Evaluation
One strength is the emergence of cultural psychology. These studies avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking
an emic approach to their research and cross-cultural studies tend to focus on two countries rather than a
large scale. This means that modern psychologists are aware of the dangers of cultural bias and taking steps to
avoid it.
One limitation is that it cannot be assumed that all behaviour is culturally relative and there is no such thing
as universal human behaviour. Ekman suggests facial expressions are the same all over the natural world. This
means criticisms of attachment research should not obscure the fact that some features are universal, for
example imitation and interactional synchrony.
Another limitation is it has led to prejudice against groups of people. For example the first intelligence tests
during WW1 were ethnocentric, assuming everyone would know the names of the US presidents. This was used
to inform about the genetic inferiority of certain cultural groups justifying how cultural bias can be used as a
tool of discrimination.
FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Free will The notion all humans can make choices and behaviour/ thought is not determined
by biological or external forces
Determinism An individual’s behaviour is shaped/ controlled by internal or external forces
rather than will to do something
Hard determinism All behaviour is caused by something, free will is an illusion
Soft determinism Behaviour may be predictable but there is also room for personal choice from a
limited range of possibilities
Biological determinism Behaviour caused by uncontrollable biological influences, e.g. the autonomic nervous
system on stress
Environmental determinism B.F. Skinner thought free will is an illusion arguing behaviour derives from
conditioning, behaviour is reinforced
GENDER BIAS
Universality Underlying characteristic that can be applied to all
Gender bias This is when an individual's group is treated differently than others. In this context this
means that the research doesn’t justifiably represent the behaviour of men or women
Alpha bias Exaggerates the differences
- Freud, girls morally inferior to boys as their Superegos are weaker
- Chodorow, daughters and mothers are closer due to biological similarities
Beta bias Ignores/ minimises differences even if women excluded from research processes
- Flight or fight research, later found that women ‘tend and befriend’
Androcentrism Normal behaviour judged by a male standard
Evaluation
One limitation is the promotion of sexism within the research process. This means institutional structures (i.e.
universities with male professors teaching a majority female class) and methods of psychology may produce
biassed findings.
Another limitation is that research challenging these biases may not be published. This is because this line of
research is given less funding and published by less prestigious journals resulting in fewer scholars applying it in
their own work. This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other
biases.
CULTURAL BIAS
Universality Henrich et al. found that 96% of participants in leading journals came from
industrialised nations and 80% were psychology undergraduates - standard is set by
WEIRD participants (westernised, educated, industrialised, rich, democracies)
Cultural bias Interpreting through the ‘lens’ of your culture and ignoring the effects of cultural
differences on behaviour
Ethnocentrism Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own country. In extremes this can
include the belief of one's own superiority - prejudice.
- The Strange Situation culture bound to the US, Japanese babies more likely to
be insecurely attached likely due to the rare separation from their mothers
(Takahasi)
, Cultural relativism Ideas that norms and values can only be meaningful and understood within a specific
social and cultural context.
- Berry (1969) etic approach looks at behaviour outside of a given culture for
universal behaviour, emic is specific to studied culture
- Strange situation is an example of an imposed etic
Evaluation
One strength is the emergence of cultural psychology. These studies avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking
an emic approach to their research and cross-cultural studies tend to focus on two countries rather than a
large scale. This means that modern psychologists are aware of the dangers of cultural bias and taking steps to
avoid it.
One limitation is that it cannot be assumed that all behaviour is culturally relative and there is no such thing
as universal human behaviour. Ekman suggests facial expressions are the same all over the natural world. This
means criticisms of attachment research should not obscure the fact that some features are universal, for
example imitation and interactional synchrony.
Another limitation is it has led to prejudice against groups of people. For example the first intelligence tests
during WW1 were ethnocentric, assuming everyone would know the names of the US presidents. This was used
to inform about the genetic inferiority of certain cultural groups justifying how cultural bias can be used as a
tool of discrimination.
FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Free will The notion all humans can make choices and behaviour/ thought is not determined
by biological or external forces
Determinism An individual’s behaviour is shaped/ controlled by internal or external forces
rather than will to do something
Hard determinism All behaviour is caused by something, free will is an illusion
Soft determinism Behaviour may be predictable but there is also room for personal choice from a
limited range of possibilities
Biological determinism Behaviour caused by uncontrollable biological influences, e.g. the autonomic nervous
system on stress
Environmental determinism B.F. Skinner thought free will is an illusion arguing behaviour derives from
conditioning, behaviour is reinforced
