FTCE Elementary K-6 Study Guide.

FTCE Elementary K-6 Study Guide. Note: This study guide is meant to assist your study process. Please use it as one of a few resources, and not the only resource you study with! FTCE Elementary K-6 Study Guide Language Arts & Reading Developmental Stages of Reading • Stage 0: Prereading, birth to age 6 • Stage 1: Initial reading, grades 1-2.5 • Stage 2: Confirmation, Fluency, Ungluing from Print, grades 2-3 • Stage 3: Reading for Learning the New, grades 4-8 • Stage 4: Multiple Viewpoints, high school, ages 14-18 • Stage 5: Construction and Reconstruction, college and above, ages 18+ Guided reading An instructional strategy in which the teacher and a group of children, or sometimes an individual child, talk and think and question their way through a book of which they each have a copy. The teacher shows the children what questions to ask of themselves as readers, and the author through the text, so that each child can discover the author's meaning on the first reading. Sight words These are high frequency words which readers need to know automatically when they see them. Many of these words are not decodable. • In kindergarten, instruction begins with an emphasis on oral language and awareness of sounds. Activities include many listening for rhymes, identifying the initial sounds of pictures or spoken words, listening for how many words are in a spoken sentence, and listening for the number of syllables in a word. • Then children learn that letters correspond to speech sounds and that speech can be put into print. Children begin by learning initial sounds. They often represent whole words with just the beginning consonant sound when writing. Final consonant sounds are represented next. Vowel sounds are included last as children begin learning to match speech to print for the purpose of writing and reading. • After students understand simple consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) patterns, then consonant blends and consonant digraphs can be introduced, so that words like plan and stop or that and she can be added to the words that students can spell and read. • As they become familiar with words in print, readers build a storehouse of common words that they recognize automatically by sight. These words are also called high-frequency words because they appear in text more often than most other words. Words like the, to, a, and, you, am, I and of occur very frequently in text. • In the next stage students work with words built from a similar pattern or word family like the "at" in hat, cat, fat, mat and rat. This knowledge allows them to read many more words. Activities which engage students in manipulating sounds to build words and sort words help reinforce the patterns of spelling in English. • A knowledge of syllables and word parts expands a reader’s capacity to recognize and decode longer words. This concept is often introduced with compound words made up of two smaller words the child might already know –play-ground, sun-shine, or black-board. • Learning about inflectional endings like -ed, -ing, or -s provides additional information about how the meaning of words changes with different endings. These endings can change tense of verbs or create plural nouns. • This is followed by learning about prefixes and suffixes, which impact the meaning of the base word to which they are added. Think of how the meaning of like changes by adding a- to form alike, dis- to form dislike, un- to form unlike, -able to form likeable, or -ness to form likeness. • At the upper end of the continuum, students learn about word parts of Latin and Greek origin. These parts provide meaning cues. At this point, the student is no longer decoding at the individual letter level, but rather by meaningful units called morphemes. The demands of reading content-area textbooks require having skills for recognizing familiar word parts in order to read the text and determine the meaning of the vocabulary. Phonemic awareness This is auditory discrimination of sounds, taught through rhyming, word segmentation, word blending, consonant and/or vowel substitution, picture sorting, etc. Phonics is relating text to a sound 5 Components of Reading 3 Types of Assessment initial instruction immediate intensive intervention Phonemic Awareness Screening Based on Scientific Research Individualized based on assessment. Monitored regularly for progress. Phonics Diagnosis Systematic More intensive instruction of best practices for a longer duration. Fluency Progress Monitoring Explicit Vocabulary Comprehension Phonological awareness includes identifying and manipulating larger parts of spoken language, such as words, syllables, and onsets and rimes--as well as phonemes. It also encompasses awareness of other aspects of sound, such as rhyming, alliteration, and intonation. Phonemic awareness is a subcategory of phonological awareness. The focus of phonemic awareness is narrow--identifying and manipulating the individual sounds in words. The focus of phonological awareness is much broader. Phonemic awareness is the understanding that the sounds of spoken language work together to make words. It does not involve written letters. Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words. Before children learn to read print, they need to become aware of how the sounds in words work. They must understand that words are made up of speech sounds, or phonemes. Children who have phonemic awareness skills are likely to have an easier time learning to read and spell than children who have few or none of these skills. Comes BEFORE Phonics. Phonemes are the smallest parts of sound in a spoken word that make a difference in the word's meaning. Phonemes = sounds; 44 in standard English. For example, changing the first phoneme in the word hat from /h/ to /p/ changes the word from hat to pat Phonics instruction teaches children the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. It teaches children to use these relationships to read and write words. The goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn and use the alphabetic principle – the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds. Phonics instruction • helps children learn the relationships between the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken language. Phonics instruction is important because • it leads to an understanding of the alphabetic principle--the systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds. Programs of phonics instruction are effective when they are • systematic--the plan of instruction includes a carefully selected set of letter-sound relationships that are organized into a logical sequence. • explicit--the programs provide teachers with precise directions for the teaching of these relationships. • Effective phonics programs provide • ample opportunities for children to apply what they are learning about letters and sounds to the reading of words, sentences, and stories. Systematic and explicit phonics instruction • significantly improves children's word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension. • is most effective when it begins in kindergarten or first grade Continuum of Phonological Awareness Skills in Increasing Degrees of Difficulty Type Subtype Example Rhyme Recognition • Does cat rhyme with hat? (yes) Production • What rhymes with cat? (hat) Alliteration Recognizing words with the same initial sounds • Daisy duck dances. • Sweet Suzie sits on a soft sofa. Words in sentences Sentence segmentation • How many words are in this sentence? • Mary bakes bread. (3) Syllables Blending • Listen to the two word parts: side…walk. Say the whole word: (sidewalk) • Listen : yes…ter…day Say the whole word: (yesterday) Segmenting • Say the two words in sidewalk: (side….walk) • Listen: yesterday Say each part: yes..ter..day Deletion • Say sidewalk without side: (walk) Onsets and Rimes Blending • What word is this? /c/…./ake/ (cake) /st/ …/and/ (stand) /fl/ /ip/ (flip) Phoneme Matching Initial Sound Isolating Initial Sound • Which words begin with the same sound? Final sounds Medial sounds cake, cat, dog (cake, cat) • What is the first sound in cake? (/c/) • What is the last sound in hat? (/t/) • What is the middle sound in mop? (/o/) Phoneme Blending • What word am I saying? /c/ /a/ /t/ (cat) Phoneme Segmenting • How many sounds do you hear in cat? (3) • What are the sounds in cat? (/c/ /a/ /t/) Phoneme Manipulation: Initial and final phoneme deletion • Say Sam without the /s/. (am) • Say seat without the /t/. (sea) Initial phoneme in blend deletion • Say flip without the /f/. (lip) Phoneme substitution • Say cat. Now say /p/ instead of /c/. What is the new word? (pat) • Say tan. Now say /p/ instead of /n/. (nap) • Say tap. Now say /o/ instead of /a/. (top) Second phoneme in blend deletion • Say black without the /l/? (back) Terms and Definitions Phoneme: a speech sound that combines with others in a language to make words. Grapheme: the written symbol for a speech sound. Vowel digraph (or vowel pair): two vowels together in a word that represent one phoneme (for example, ea, ai, ay, oa). Consonant digraph: two consonants appearing together that represent one phoneme (sound) – ch, sh. Consonant blend:-two or more consonants appearing together in a word with each retaining its sound – st, bl, br, str. Diphthong: a special vowel sound that requires two different positions of the mouth to produce the sound /oi/, /ow/. Syllable: a segment of a word that contains one vowel sound (the vowel may or may not be preceded and/or followed by a consonant). Segmenting: separating the individual phonemes (sounds) of a word into discreet units. Phonogram: another term for rime or word family. Onset: in a single syllable word or syllable of a longer word, the onset is the initial consonant or consonants. Rime: the vowel and any consonants that follow it in a syllable or single syllable word. Blending: the task of combining the distinct units of sound that comprise a word rapidly, to accurately represent the word. Chunking: the practice of breaking a word into manageable parts for the purpose of decoding or as a strategy for figuring out a longer word. Decoding: the process of translating printed words into an oral language representation, using knowledge of letter- sound relationships and word structure. Alphabetic Principle: the understanding that letters and letter combinations represent individual phonemes in words in written language. Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically, and they group words quickly to gain meaning from what they read. Fluent readers read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Their reading sounds natural, as if they are speaking. Fluency is important because it is the bridge between word recognition and comprehension. Fluent readers do not have to concentrate on decoding the words; they can focus their attention on what the text means. Types of texts: Independent level text Relatively easy text for the reader, with no more than approximately 1 in 20 words difficult for the reader (95% success) Instructional level text Challenging but manageable text for the reader, with no more than approximately 1 in 10 words difficult for the reader (90% success) Frustration level text Difficult text for the reader, with more than 1 in 10 words difficult for the reader (less than 90% success) Automaticity refers only to accurate, speedy word recognition, not to reading with expression. Therefore, automaticity (or automatic word recognition) is necessary, but not sufficient, for fluency. Reading fluency can be developed • Modeling fluent reading by having students engage in repeated oral reading. Monitoring student progress in reading fluency • is useful in evaluating instruction and setting instructional goals • can be motivating to students. The teacher should use the three characteristics of accuracy, rate, and prosody to determine what kind of instruction or practice a student may need to increase fluency. Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively. There are different types of vocabulary. Oral vocabulary refers to the words we use in speaking. Listening vocabulary refers to the words we recognize in listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize in print. Writing vocabulary includes words we use in our own writing. The scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that (1) most vocabulary is learned indirectly, and (2) some vocabulary must be taught directly. You will probably to be able to teach thoroughly only a few new words (perhaps eight or ten) per week, so you need to choose the words you teach carefully. Focus on teaching three types of words: Important words. When you teach words before students read a text, directly teach those words that are important for understanding a concept or the text. Your students might not know several other words in the selection, but you will not have time to teach them all. Of course, you should prepare your students to use word-learning strategies to figure out the meanings of other words in the text. Useful words. Teach words that students are likely to see and use again and again. For example, it is probably more useful for students to learn the word fragment than the word fractal; likewise, the word revolve is more useful than the word gyrate. Difficult words. Provide some instruction for words that are particularly difficult for your students. Level of Word Knowledge Definition Unknown The word is completely unfamiliar and its meaning is unknown. Acquainted The word is somewhat familiar; the student has some idea of its basic meaning. Established The word is very familiar; the student can immediately recognize its meaning and use the word correctly. Text comprehension is making meaning from text. It is the ultimate reason for reading. All of the other areas of reading contribute to comprehension. Good readers are purposeful. Good readers have a purpose for reading. They may read to find out how to use a food processor, read a guidebook to gather information about national parks, read a textbook to satisfy the requirements of a course, read a magazine for entertainment, or read a classic novel to experience the pleasures of great literature. Good readers are active. Good readers think actively as they read. To make sense of what they read, good readers engage in a complicated process. Using their experiences and knowledge of the world, their knowledge of vocabulary and language structure, and their knowledge of reading strategies (or plans), good readers make sense of the text and know how to get the most out of it. They know when they have problems with understanding and how to resolve these problems as they occur. Effective comprehension strategy instruction is explicit, or direct. • Direct explanation. The teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and when to apply the strategy. • Modeling. The teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking aloud" while reading the text that the students are using. • Guided practice. The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the strategy. • Application. The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it independently. Comprehension Strategies for Proficient Readers Consist of... • an awareness and understanding of one's own cognitive processes • recognition of when one doesn't understand • coordination and shifting the use of strategies as needed Text Structure Types Prompts Key Words Descriptive Does the text tell what something is? Sequence Does the text tell how to do something or make something? first, second, next, then, finally Cause/effect Does the text give reasons for why something happens? because, then, so, therefore, for this reason, results, since, reasons, effects, consequences, in order, thus Problem/Solution Does the text state a problem and offer solutions to the problem? Compare/Contrast Does the text show how two things are alike or different? same, similar, although, however, on the other hand, but, yet, still, rather, than, instead of, both, neither Enumeration or categorizing Does the text give a list of things that are related to a topic? an example, for instance, another, next, finally Cognates are words that are similar in meaning and spelling in both Spanish and English STAGES OF WRITING In his book Developmental Variation and Learning Disorders, Dr. Mel Levine describes six stages of writing development. Below is a list of those stages and some skills that characterize them. Imitation (preschool to first grade) In this phase children: > pretend to write > become aware that letters can be arranged to form words > begin to organize letters and shapes in a line > begin to print letters and numbers > have relatively crude motor skills Graphic Representation (first and second grades) In this phase children: > become adept at printing letters > are preoccupied with the visual appearance of their writing > become self-conscious if their penmanship is less attractive than their classmates' > become better at sequential ordering of letters and numbers > use invented spellings of words liberally Progressive Incorporation (late second to fourth grade) In this phase children: > gradually incorporate standards of capitalization, punctuation, syntax, and grammar > seldom plan what they are going to write before they write it > use writing to relate experiences rather than to solve problems or develop ideas > begin writing in cursive > begin revising their work Automatization (fourth to seventh grade) In this phase children: > must apply rules of grammar, spelling, and punctuation automatically > begin to regularly review their own work > begin to write at a level equivalent to their own speech > learn to write in stages by incorporating outlines and multiple drafts > begin to assess the effectiveness of their own writing Elaboration (seventh to ninth grade) In this phase children: > become increasingly adept at using writing to express a viewpoint > begin to use writing for thinking, problem solving, and remembering > learn to synthesize ideas from a variety of sources > begin to write at a level that exceeds their own speech > use transitions like "finally" and "for example" extensively Personalization-Diversification (ninth grade and beyond) In this phase children: > learn to use writing styles appropriate to their subjects > become more creative with their writing > learn to use sentences of varying length and complexity > write with increasingly sophisticated vocabulary > develop individual writing styles Writing is a recursive process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing. The four basic modes of writing included in this section are narrative, descriptive, expository, and persuasive. ASSESSMENTS OF WRITING Assessment: Collecting information on the progress of students' learning using a variety of procedures (e.g., checklists, inventories, self-assessments). Evaluation: Making judgments on the basis of the information collected. Reporting: Conveying the results. Remember that when using a rubric as an assessment device, your students should be presented with your rubric criteria before they begin to write. Anticipation guide A prediction strategy used for before reading. The teacher provides a series of statements, some true, some false, from what will be read. Students discuss these prior to reading. Attribute or retrieval chart A table in which there is a list of items on the left side and various characteristics across the top. Items are matched with characteristics in a grid. Author's chair A designated place where student authors come to read their work to others. Author's craft Students analyze what an author does to make his/her writing effective (e.g., figurative language, dialogue, sentence variety, text forms, and features, etc.) Carousel A questioning strategy used to generate ideas in response to different questions. Working in cooperative groups, each group is given a question. The group then generates responses in their groups. Students rotate from group to group, adding new responses after reading the existing ones from other groups. All ideas are shared at the end of the rotation. Character profile and analysis Students use explicit and inferred information from the text to list distinctive attributes of a particular character. Choral reading Reading that is practiced and read together in a group. Chunking (A) This is a strategy where the reader combines items into meaningful units such as letters into words or words into phrases. (B) A strategy taught to students in which they separate words into smaller parts so that it is more easily read. (e.g., accordion, insignia) Cloze procedure A procedure where some words are left out of sentences (usually every 5th or 7th word) and the student fills in the missing word. It can be oral or written. Concept attainment/development One-by-one the teacher presents examples and non-examples of a concept and then asks students to name the concept and define it based on the identified essential characteristics. Cooperative learning Cooperative learning occurs when a group of students work together with positive interdependence, individual accountability, processing, and interpersonal skills. Cubing A writing strategy that prompts students to free write about a given subject or object from six different perspectives. Students are seated in small groups, and each group has a cube with a different verb written on each face: describe, compare, associate, analyze, apply, and argue for or against. The teacher presents a specific idea or object as the focus and directs the groups to position the cube so that DESCRIBE is on top. All students then free write for a few minutes to describe the object. When the time is up, students read what they have written to each other. The same steps are followed for each perspective. Dancing definitions Teacher writes out 10 - 12 vocabulary definitions in a rhythmic pattern. Students recite the definitions repeatedly over a period of several days. Defining format This is a three-column format with a word (left column), its general definition (second column) and its specific characteristics (right column). DRTA Directed Reading-Thinking Activity - A strategy especially effective for nonfiction. The students identify problems or questions and predict answers. They adjust rate to appropriate level, read passage, and then check information against their predictions or hypotheses. Echo reading A strategy to increase fluency, teach sight words, or improve phrasing and expression in which a skilled reader reads a text, a sentence, a paragraph, one line at a time as the learner tracks the words. The learner then echoes or imitates the skilled reader. Eye (witness) Reports Students choose a place that they want to know more about or have been assigned to cover for a particular assignment. They observe there, take notes, and write up the visits according to a purpose that they may discuss with partners before the visit and refer to in workshop sessions afterwards. Free write A writing exercise used for brainstorming and to develop writing fluency. Students write non-stop for five to ten minutes, letting their ideas go without concern for revision or editing or controlling the words. Guided reading An instructional strategy in which the teacher and a group of children, or sometimes an individual child, talk and think and question their way through a book of which they each have a copy. The teacher shows the children what questions to ask of themselves as readers, and the author through the text, so that each child can discover the author's meaning on the first reading. Highly recurring phonics elements Students are taught highly recurring phonic patterns through recitation and intensive practice of 3-5 new patterns every 2 days. The teacher continually refers to the patterns whenever new words that contain one or more of the patterns are introduced. Idea book A journal or notebook where a student will record his/her ideas, plans, designs, revisions, problems, solutions, or questions. Independent reading The student reads without assistance at a level where he/she can be regularly successful, or his/her independent level. Individual assessment checklist Target skills that are assessed by the teacher at a certain grade level that are on a checklist to assist teachers in keeping track of skills that are taught and mastered. The skills are categorized by subject area, i.e. reading, writing, evaluating, etc. There is one checklist per student. I-search reporting Expository writing based on a question a student poses and then answers by researching information. Research may include interviews and observations as well as use of print and electronic sources. Usually written in first person, and conversational in tone and approach. Jigsaw A strategy where text is divided among individual or paired readers. Each person or pair then reports the information learned from their section to the rest of the group. Journals There are many kinds of journals, which have different purposes (e.g., writing notebooks for collecting writing ideas, personal journals for personal thoughts, reflective journals to reflect on learning or new ideas, response journals for responding to something that has been read or heard). Key word This strategy is used before reading to focus attention, activate prior knowledge, arouse curiosity, and set purposes for learning. From the text, the teacher selects several words or numbers that relate to the topic and that can be associated with one another in different ways. The teacher shows these to the students and asks them to speculate on how they're related to the topic. Students form hypotheses, explain their reasoning, and justify their thinking, then read to inform, refute, or revise their hypotheses. KWL This is a three-column chart. The first column is what is known, the second is what do you want to find out, and the third is what you have learned after the reading or investigation. Language experience Students dictate a short story and the teacher writes it down so the student can reread it. Learning logs Students record what they are learning. Letter sound match Students identify upper and lower case letters and match sounds to the appropriate letter symbol. List-group-label Students begin with an array or words or phrases. These are then placed into groups that have like characteristics. Finally, a label is given to each group. Literature circles This is an approach where small groups of students read different books frequently on the same topic or theme (similar to a book club). Metacognition The ability to recognize one's own thought processes and being conscious of strategies being used. Monitor and clarify While the student reads text, she/he monitors his or her understanding of content. The student can clarify by rereading or by reading ahead. Note taking * Sticky notes - Students use sticky notes to mark interesting passages or places where they have questions while reading. * Sticky notes #2 - Students respond to a question charted on large paper by placing a sticky note on chart. This results in a classroom compilation of responses on sticky notes. * Two-column note taking - The student records words or phrases from reading in the first column and then writes what he/she thinks is meant in the second column. * Three-column note taking - This is like two-column note taking with a third column where the student records his/her reaction or personal response to what was read. Opinion proof chart This is done in a T-chart format. Students review the text to find evidence to support an opinion. Panoramic book The panoramic talking book is a student made book that is built upon the walls of the classroom. Using student artistic creations based on a currently studied theme, students create bubbles to share what the characters on the wall are saying. The purpose of the book is to provide a successful reading experience with the student's own words in their environment. The process is excellent for building understanding of quotation marks, punctuation, and language patterns. Phonemic awareness This is auditory discrimination of sounds, taught through rhyming, word segmentation, word blending, consonant and/or vowel substitution, picture sorting, etc. Phonic pattern hopscotch The teacher introduces new words, one phonic element at a time, until the whole word is built; avoid introducing the initial sounds first. Goal is to have students form the habit of looking at the whole word, identifying all the letter patterns they know, and build the word around those familiar patterns. Phonics/decoding strategy This is a series of steps to do when a reader comes to an unknown work, including: 1. Look carefully at the word. 2. Look for word parts you know and think about the sounds for the letters. 3. Blend the sounds to read the word. 4. Ask yourself: Is it a word I know? Does it make sense in what I am reading? 5. If not, ask yourself: What else can I try? Plot map This is a graphic representation of the story elements, characters, setting, plot events, climax, and solution. It is useful for increasing comprehension or as a pre- write for narrative. Possible sentences Students take an array of words from text to be read and try to make sentences incorporating the words that will give them a clue to content. Problem solution chart A guide that helps students to think, write, and discuss issues. Problems are listed on the left side, effects in the middle, and solutions on the right. QAR's A questioning scheme developed by Raphael called Question-Answer Relationships. This strategy is especially helpful as students learn to infer. Students learn to identify different types of questions and to know that they require different kinds of work to answer the questions. Questions include Right-there questions and Think-and-search questions. First students identify the type of questions when asked by the teacher, and then they are asked to create their own types of questions. Reading Logs Students record a list of books he or she has read. Read-talk-write This strategy helps to monitor comprehension as students read. A small section is read. Then the students talk in pairs about what was read and then write summary information. Variations include: Read-draw-write, read-draw-talk, listen-talk-write, etc. Reciprocal teaching Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity in a form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and students take turns assuming the role of the teacher. Saturation reports This report is based on a student's observations of an occasion or place, reported with "saturation" in sights and sounds. Notes are taken on the spot, followed by an account that integrates the initial saturation with the writer's impression of the experience. Semantic map A strategy commonly used before reading expository text to activate prior knowledge of a particular concept. It is similar to List-group-label - Pearson and Johnson. Shared reading This reading model occurs when a teacher reads to a group of children rather than to a specific child. Shared reading may used Big Books, overheads, or other text. Shared writing This is a writing strategy in which teacher and students write collaboratively, including choice of topic, content, and word choice. The teacher acts as a scribe and models conventions. Sight words These are high frequency words which readers need to know automatically when they see them. Many of these words are not decodable. Skimming and scanning skills Skimming is reading quickly through a passage to get the gist of it; scanning is moving your eyes quickly over a passage looking for a specific piece of information. Story map This is a graphic representation of the elements of a story that may take many forms, (e.g., plot map, flow map). It is useful for increasing comprehension of stories, and as a pre-write for narrative. Strip story One or more paragraphs have been rewritten as a list of sentences in mixed-up order. Students cut out the sentences and put them in the right order. Structural analysis Breaking words apart into smaller units to decode (e.g., dis/cover/y). Student-generated questions Students generate their own questions to be answered as they read. Tableau A reading strategy used to increase comprehension by connecting to the emotions of the characters. Students read a portion of text, freeze, then discuss what the characters are feeling at that specific moment in the story. Taxonomies These are lists of words related to a specific topic or subject area, usually organized alphabetically. Text features These are parts of a text that help the reader to understand (e.g., headings, titles, index, table of contents, captions, bold type, italic type). Thematic units Thematic units are written and planned as units of study around common knowledge or concepts that develop important concepts, promote the transfer of skills, and are relevant to the student's lives (e.g., A unit with the theme of overcoming hard times, or homelessness). Think aloud Teacher or student shares process of thinking, with attention to all possible details of subject. Elaboration and details are encouraged. Think-pair-share Students a.) think individually about a response b.)pair with another and discuss ideas c.) share thinking with the rest of class. Two-word summary A two-word description that summarizes text. Objective is to succinctly capture meaning in two words. Vocabulary extensions Supporting strategies and activities that go beyond the vocabulary lesson. One example for vocabulary extension is to have students locate words that they are studying in a different text or context. Vocabulary map A graphic organizer that helps students develop elaborate definitions of words, expand meanings, and discover relationships between words. WEB One acronym for independent silent reading, meaning Wonderfully Exciting Books. Students choose their own books that are read both at school and home for twenty minutes twice a day. Students keep a reading log of their daily reading with the title of the book and the pages read. Additionally, students meet in small groups and discuss the books that they have completed. The book sharing usually can be done during the independent reading time or the literacy block. Word sort The students sort words according to a variety of characteristics, including beginning or ending consonant sounds, vowel sounds, number of syllables, and rhymes. Word splash Students write original and interesting stories from the words that are randomly "splashed" on paper (a picture graphic). Students can use the words from a story, book, or dictionary. Word wall A visual strategy of arranging words on walls for vocabulary development, language development, use as a thesaurus, and spell check. ASSESSMENTS Screening – at beginning of year Diagnostic - given as soon as a screening test indicates that a student has a deficit in one or more areas of reading. However, a diagnostic test is given only if a student fails to make adequate progress following instruction - valuable instructional time can be wasted if assessments do not have a clear purpose. - used to measure one or more critical reading skills. They are designed to provide a more precise and detailed picture of the full range of a student's skill and knowledge in order to plan instruction more precisely. outcome measure - usually given at the end of the year or at the end of a major unit of study. An outcome measure primarily is used to compare a student’s performance to a national or state standard Standard Error of Measurement A range within which a student's score would be if the student were to take the test numerous times. All tests have inherent measurement error because they are a sample of student performance at one particular time. Grade/age equivalents An estimate of the grade level corresponding to a given student’s raw score. Stanines Comprise nine ranges or bands with fixed percentages (eg., stanine 1 represents the lowest 4% and stanine 9 represents the top 4%). Analytic Scoring A type of rubric scoring that separates the whole into categories of criteria that are examined one at a time. Formative assessment is ongoing. Formative assessment might include formal or informal measures and could be used as a diagnostic assessment or to monitor progress. Sometimes, formative assessment may resemble instruction because this type of assessment includes tasks typically used in the instructional process. Curriculum- based assessment, running records, and Informal Reading Inventories (IRIs) are examples of formative assessment. Summative assessment means the same thing as outcome measure. A summative assessment is usually used at the end of a major unit of study or at the end of a school year Norm-referenced tests compare a student’s score against a group of students who have already taken the test. This group is called the “norming group." Criterion-referenced tests are intended to measure how well a student has learned the material taught in a specific grade or subject Performance-based assessments are used to give teachers information about the way a student understands and uses knowledge - Performance tasks are measured using pre-set criteria Think aloud - teacher states aloud what he or she is thinking then asks his or her students to model this behavior. Listening to a student’s think-aloud allows teachers to capture a student’s ideas about a text during the reading process modeling - types of behaviors good readers are engaged in as they read, we are providing them with the opportunity to become aware of the many strategies and monitoring behaviors that good readers use. coached practice in the think-aloud method, we are providing them with the opportunity and guidance they need to choose useful, appropriate strategies to enhance reading comprehension reflection on the process of thinking aloud as they read, we're encouraging them to recognize the difference between reading the words and comprehending the text Story retelling is an effective approach to post-reading assessment. After students have read a story or passage, ask the student to explain what happened in the story. The purpose of retelling is to gain insight into the reader’s ability to interact with, interpret, and draw conclusions from the text running record is an individually administered reading assessment that can be used with any student text. This is a method of recording errors (miscues) a student makes while reading orally. It is usually used the earlier stages of reading and can determine what decoding strategies (sound-symbol information or context clues) the student is using The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, signed by President Bush in 2002, has required each state to develop and implement an accountability and assessment system to ensure that all districts and schools in the state make adequate yearly progress. The assessment system must include measurement of progress in reading and language arts, mathematics, and science. Each state must set a timetable showing that the percentage of students meeting or exceeding proficiency in reading, math, and science will increase until there is “no child left behind.” Mathematics Properties 1. Associative Property can group numbers in any way without changing the answer. It doesn't matter how you combine them, the answer will always be the same. Addition and multiplication are both associative. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c. 2. Commutative Property can change the order of the numbers involved without changing the result. Addition and multiplication are both commutative. Subtraction is not commutative: 2 - 1 is not equal to 1 - 2. a + b = b + a a * b = b * a. 3. Distributive Property you give pieces of it to many different people; one operation over another. The most common distributive property is the distribution of multiplication over addition. It says that when a number is multiplied by the sum of two other numbers, the first number can be handed out or distributed to both of those two numbers and multiplied by each of them separately. Here's the distributive property in symbols: a * (b + c) = a * b + a * c. 4. Property of Closure If we take two real numbers and multiply them together, we get another real number. (The real numbers are all the rational numbers and all the irrational numbers.) Because this is always true, we say that the real numbers are "closed under the operation of multiplication": there is no way to escape the set. When you combine any two elements of the set, the result is also included in the set. Real numbers are also closed under addition and subtraction. They are not closed under the square root operation, because the square root of -1 is not a real number 5. Inverse The inverse of something is that thing turned inside out or upside down. The inverse of an operation undoes the operation: division undoes multiplication. A number's additive inverse is another number that you can add to the original number to get the additive identity. For example, the additive inverse of 67 is -67, because 67 + -67 = 0, the additive identity. Similarly, if the product of two numbers is the multiplicative identity, the numbers are multiplicative inverses. Since 6 * 1/6 = 1 (the multiplicative identity), the multiplicative inverse of 6 is 1/6. Zero does not have a multiplicative inverse, since no matter what you multiply it by, the answer is always 0, not 1. 6. Equality The equals sign in an equation is like a scale: both sides, left and right, must be the same in order for the scale to stay in balance and the equation to be true. The addition property of equality says that if a = b, then a + c = b + c: if you add the same number to (or subtract the same number from) both sides of an equation, the equation continues to be true. The multiplication property of equality says that if a = b, then a * c = b * c: if you multiply (or divide) by the same number on both sides of an equation, the equation continues to be true. The reflexive property of equality just says that a = a: anything is congruent to itself: the equals sign is like a mirror, and the image it "reflects" is the same as the original. The symmetric property of equality says that if a = b, then b = a. The transitive property of equality says that if a = b and b = c, then a = c. Social Science Primary source – from the actual event - Published, unpublished, oral traditions/histories, visual documents/artifacts Secondary source – written about the event after that time time and place rule - closer in time and place a source and its creator were to an event in the past, the better the source will be bias rule - every source is biased in some way 5 themes of geography: location, place, human and environmental interaction, movement, and regions Democracy is a form of government in which political control is exercised by all the people, either directly or through their elected representatives. Modern democracies are characterized by free and fair elections, universal suffrage, freedom of expression, freedom of association, protection of civil liberties, and equality under the law. The difference between a democracy and a republic is often misunderstood. The United States is actually a democratic republic, which means that the supreme political power resides in the electorate, and its administration is exercised by representatives who are responsible to the people. A parliamentary democracy is a system that gives governmental authority to a legislature or parliament, which in turn selects the executive from among its own members. A prime minister is typically the leader of a parliamentary government. A constitutional monarchy is a form of government that acknowledges as head of state an elected or hereditary monarch who is guided by a constitution wherein his or her rights and responsibilities are spelled out in written law or by custom. A dictatorship is a government completely controlled by a single person or a single group that wields absolute power and is not bound by law. Dictatorships can take many forms. In a communist dictatorship, the government is ruled by one authoritarian party that takes complete control of centralized planning of the economy, eliminates the private ownership of property, and claims that all goods are shared by the people. A military dictatorship is a form of government in which all political power resides with the military (directed by a small group or a junta), or with one powerful member of the military. The term autocrat can be used to describe any ruler with unlimited power (also known as a despot). Science and Technology 3 major approaches to inquiry: 1. Structured inquiry The teacher provides the problem, materials, and procedure. Students discover the solution. 2. Guided inquiry The teacher only provides the problem and the materials. Students design the procedure and discover the solution 3. Open inquiry The teacher does not provide anything. Students themselves select a problem, identify materials, develop a procedure, and discover the solution Basic Skill Critical Attributes Observing • Information is gained through the five senses. • The focus is on similarities and differences. • Observations can be qualitative and quantitative. Quantifying • Use standard or non-standard units. • Standard metric units include meter (length), liter (volume), gram (mass), Newton (weight), and degrees Celsius (temperature). • The prefixes kilo- (1000x), hecto- (100x), and deka- (10X) increase the size of the unit. • The prefixes deci- (1/10x), centi- (1/100x), and milli- (1/1000x) decrease the size of the unit. Communicatin g • Focus on describing what can be observed using senses. • Use brief, precise descriptions. • Share quantitative and qualitative observations. • Consider receiver’s point of view. • Obtain feedback from receivers. • Use alternative descriptions. Classifying • Use clear, unambiguous traits. • Sort objects into groups based on observable similarities and differences. • Single-stage system sorts objects into two or more groups using 1 trait. • Multi-stage system divides objects into smaller and smaller subsets. • Serial ordering sorts objects along a continuum using 1 trait all objects have. Predicting • Based on observations examined for patterns and trends • Forecast a future event • Can be modified based on new data or additional observations • Multiple predictions possible for a given set of observations Inferring • Based on observations examined for patterns and trends • Explain a past or present event • Can be modified based on new data or additional observations • Multiple inferences possible for a given set of observations Scientists use three major types of classification systems: - single stage classification: sort objects into two or more groups using one observable trait or characteristic - multi-stage classification: consists of a hierarchy of single stage classifications - serial ordering: sort objects along a continuum using a trait all the objects possess to varying degrees • Variables are factors that can change in an experiment. • Manipulated variable is changed on purpose. • Responding variable may change as a result of changes in the manipulated variable. • In an experiment, only one manipulated and one responding variable should be investigated at a time • Controlled variables are all other variables that could affect the outcome of an experiment, but are held constant. • A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of the relationship between a manipulated and a responding variable. • Hypotheses should be based on prior knowledge. • A good hypothesis clearly identifies the two variables being investigated and describes how each variable will be changed. • A good scientific hypothesis should be testable. science is pure understanding and technology is applied understanding Tools and what they measure: Anemometer Wind speed Barometer Air pressure Psychrometer Relative humidity Thermometer Temperature Windsock with compass Wind direction • Cellular organization • Irritability - The ability of an organism to respond to internal or external stimuli • Homeostasis - All living things have the ability to maintain stable internal conditions to at least some extent • Metabolism - All living things need some source of energy in order to carry out life processes like growth and reproduction • Growth and development - • Reproduction Bacteria Prokaryotes Pathogen Single-celled prokaryotes that usually have a cell wall Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, who lack a defined nucleus A virus, bacteria, or protist that causes diseases protists are eukaryotes whose cells do contain a defined nucleus Eukaryote s Single-celled or multicellular organisms whose cells contain a defined nucleus Virus Prions Organelle A non-living particle, composed of genetic material and an outer protein coat, that can only replicate inside a host cell Protein particles that are smaller than viruses and cause degenerative brain diseases like mad cow disease Small cell structures that are specialized to perform major life functions Parts of cells and their functions Nucleus City Hall Ribosome Food assembly center Chloroplast Food factory Endoplasmic reticulum Highway system Golgi apparatus Postal center Mitochondria Power plant Lysosome Waste disposal center Central vacuole Water reservoir/storage facility Physiology is simply the study of the processes that organisms must be able to perform in order to live. Photosynthesi s The process whereby green plants, algae, and some bacteria use the energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen Autotrophs Organisms including green plants, algae, some protists, and some bacteria that can make their own food Cellular respiration can occur in two stages: glycolysis and aerobic respiration. During glycolysis, more complex six-carbon molecules like glucose are converted into smaller six-carbon molecules. As part of this process, a small amount of chemical energy called ATP is released. Glycolysis can occur even when oxygen is not available, and thus is an anaerobic process. Aerobic respiration occurs if oxygen is available in cells. During this process, three-carbon molecules are broken down into carbon dioxide and water and larger amounts of ATP are released. Aerobic respiration produces almost 20 times as much ATP energy as glycolysis does The human body contains 206 bones Axial skeleton The central portion of the human skeleton composed of the skull, ribs, spine, and sternum Appendicular skeleton The bones found in the appendages of the human skeleton including the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs Integument The outer protective covering of the human body composed of skin, hair, and nails The lymphatic system consists of the lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and transparent, yellowish liquid lymph. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system combine to form the circulatory system. Both the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system transport fluids throughout the body, but each system works differently and performs different major functions. The primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs, air passages such as the trachea and bronchi, and a specialized muscle called the diaphragm. The respiratory system works closely with the cardiovascular system to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. The process of digestion involves both the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into nutrients. Mechanical digestion begins when food is chewed and broken into smaller pieces in the mouth. Chemical digestion also begins in the mouth when the salivary glands release digestive enzymes that begin to break down the food. The primary organs of the excretory system are the kidneys and the bladder as well as vessels including the ureters and the urethra. In addition to filtering urea out of the blood, the kidneys also filter other toxins, water, and mineral salts to form liquid urine. The urine then passes from each of the kidneys into narrow tubes called ureters which both connect to the muscular bladder. When the bladder fills up with urine, its muscles contract and force urine out of the body through a tube called the urethra. Central nervous system Part of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system Neurons throughout the human body that are not part of the central nervous system Endocrine glands Decomposition Mineral resource Fossil fuels Glands that manufacture and secrete hormones The process whereby bacteria and certain types of fungi get their food energy by breaking down organic matter from dead organisms A concentration of a naturally occurring solid material in or on the Earth’s crust Energy-rich substances formed from the remains of organisms. The three major types of fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. Some renewable natural resources are biotic (living), such as forests and fisheries, while others are abiotic (nonliving) such as solar energy, wind energy, and water Point source pollution Non-point source Pollution that comes from a single, identifiable source pollution Pollution that comes from many dispersed, hard-to-identify sources Three major factors determine how harmful most types of pollution are: chemical nature, concentration, and persistence. Chemical nature refers to how active and harmful the pollutant is to specific types of organisms. Some organisms are more sensitive to certain chemical pollutants than others. Concentration refers to the amount of pollution found per given unit of air, water, soil, or body weight. Concentrations of many pollutants, such as arsenic, dioxin, mercury, and carbon monoxide are expressed in concentrations as small as parts per million, billion, or trillion. Persistence describes how long a pollutant can last or stay in the air, water, soil, or body of an organism. Unfortunately, some pollutants stay in the environment forever. There are four types of mountains: 1. folded - formed when plates of rock are pushed into a series of wavelike folds by tremendous sideward forces that are produced by great pressure within the Earth 2. fault-block - layers of crustal rock break or crack, producing a fault 3. domed - formed either by folding of layers of rock or by the flow of lava up and between two layers of rock 4. volcanic - formed by the gradual and periodic accumulation of lava and other materials that are thrown up when a volcano erupts Sedimentary Topographic sedimentary rocks are formed (usually in layers) from the accumulation and compression of sediment map a map representing the natural and manmade surface features of a region (rivers, lakes, mountains, and other physical features) in relief, showing the altitude and shape of such features The major categories of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic Igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks formed by the crystallization of molten magma or lava in or below Earth’s crust ("igneous" means "formed of fire") rock metamorphic rocks are derived from other rocks with changes resulting from pressure or temperature Air mass A very large body of air throughout which the horizontal temperature and moisture characteristics are similar. There are four basic types of clouds: cirrus (high-level clouds), nimbus (rain clouds), cumulus (fluffy clouds), and stratus (clouds that layer or blanket at lower altitudes Leaching is the process by which soluble materials in the soil, such as salts, nutrients, pesticide chemicals, or contaminants, are washed into a lower layer of soil or are dissolved and carried away by water A sinkhole is a very large hole or crater formed in the crust of Earth caused when the roof of a cavern collapses The planets are the largest celestial bodies orbiting the Sun. The planets, in order of distance of orbit from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. There are many ways to remember the order of the planets by using an easy-to-remember phrase or sentence—for example, Mary’s Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas. Young mountains are high, rocky with sharp, jagged peaks Plateau - a relatively low mountain made of rock layers that are in the same horizontal position in which the layers originally formed under the crust Plate tectonics - plates that slowly drift on the mantle, causing the movement of continents Water causes greatest amount of erosion Petrified describes early forms of life that are still in natural shape Sedimentary rocks contain most fossils, usually orange-red, porous Igneous - rock category begin as magma, crystallize, and with heat and pressure becomes part of metamorphic rock Rock cycle - Rocks are constantly being formed, worn down and then formed again Soil absorption is percolation Moon cycles is about 29.5 days Venus is hottest planet Gas giants and have rings: Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Jupiter Comets have elongated elliptical orbits and its head is made up of rocks, dust, and frozen gases, tail flies in a direction away from the sun as the comet curves around the sun Voyager - unmanned missions launched in 1977 explored the giant planets (Jupiter,Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) and became the most distant objects in space made by humans Galileo - unmanned missions launched between 1989 and 1994 flew by Earth and Venus, studied Jupiter and its satellites, then sent an atmospheric probe into Jupiter’s atmosphere International Space Station - manned mission began in 2000 as a combined effort of 15 different countries and five different space agencies (including NASA), and was built in space Pioneer - unmanned missions launched in 1972 and 1973 had the purpose of taking the first direct observations and close-up images of Jupiter and Saturn Hubble Space Telescope – used to study our universe