ESSAY PLANS
1. Describe + evaluate 2 or more definitions of abnormality
AO1
— statistical infrequency = behaviours that are numerically rare + fall
2 standard deviations away from the mean in a normal distribution
curve
— deviation from social norms = deviating from the inexplicit rules set
by society that act as glue for society to function
— failure to function adequately = not being able to meet the
demands of everyday life. Criteria set by Rosenhan + Seligman +
include: personal distress, irrationality, maladaptive behaviours +
unpredictability
— deviation from ideal mental health = deviating from criteria set by
Jahoda that assesses mental health in the same way physical health
may be assessed. Looks for signs that suggest an absence of wellbeing.
Includes: self-actualisation, environmental mastery, autonomy +
positive attitudes towards oneself
AO3
— statistical infrequency – not all statistical infrequent behaviours are
negative
— sets an objective definition for abnormality
— not everyone benefits from labels
— deviation from social norms – cultural relativism
— leads to human rights abuse
— Failure to function adequately – easy criteria to identify abnormality
— subjective
— takes into account patient’s subjective experience
— deviation from social norms aren’t always bad e.g. extreme sports
— deviation from ideal mental health – cultural relativism (biased –
individualist cultures)
— comprehensive definition
— unrealistically high expectations of mental health
2. Describe + evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias
AO1
— the two-process model states that phobias are acquired by classical
conditioning + maintained through operant conditioning
— classical conditioning involves learning to associate something
which we don’t initially fear (neutral stimulus) with something that
already triggers fear (unconditioned stimulus)
, — this conditioning is the generalised to similar objects, e.g. Little
Albert’s fear of white rats was generalised to other furry objects (even
Santa Claus)
— the phobia is then maintained through operant conditioning as
responses acquired through classical conditioning usually tend to
decline over time
— operant conditioning takes place when our behaviour is reinforced
or punished – reinforcement increases frequency of behaviour
— in phobias, an individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant (neg
reinforcement) which results in desirable consequence of no fear, means
behaviour will be repeated
— whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus, we successfully escape fear
+ anxiety that we should have suffered if remaining there
— fear reduction reinforces avoidance behaviour so phobia is
maintained
AO3
— theory has good explanatory power as it was a definite step
forwards when it was proposed in 1960 as it went beyond Watson +
Rayner’s concept of classical conditioning. It explained how phobias
could be maintained over time + this had an important implication for
therapies – explains why patients need to be exposed to stimulus. Once
patient is prevented from practicing avoidance behaviours, behaviour
ceases to be reinforced + so it declines. Application to therapy is a
strength of the model
— alternative explanation for avoidance behaviour – not all avoidance
behaviour results in anxiety reduction (especially more complex
phobias). At least some behaviour is motivated by positive feelings of
safety + this is the reason for not wanting to remain with a stimulus.
This explains why some agoraphobic patients are able to leave their
house with a trusted person but not alone -> avoidance is motivated by
anxiety reduction
— incomplete evaluation of phobias – evolutionary factors have an
important role in phobias. Adaptive to acquire fears – biological
preparedness -> innate predisposition to acquire certain fears e.g.
snakes
— some phobias aren’t the result of a bad experience so classical
conditioning cannot explain them. For example, someone may have a
fear of snakes although they’ve never actually met one
3. Outline + evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias
AO1
— Systematic desensitisation – gradual treatment of phobia
— Reciprocal inhibition + counter conditioning
— Anxiety hierarchy, relaxation + exposure
— Flooding – immediate exposure for 2/3 hours
— Eliminates avoidance behaviours
— Extinction of association between CS + CR
1. Describe + evaluate 2 or more definitions of abnormality
AO1
— statistical infrequency = behaviours that are numerically rare + fall
2 standard deviations away from the mean in a normal distribution
curve
— deviation from social norms = deviating from the inexplicit rules set
by society that act as glue for society to function
— failure to function adequately = not being able to meet the
demands of everyday life. Criteria set by Rosenhan + Seligman +
include: personal distress, irrationality, maladaptive behaviours +
unpredictability
— deviation from ideal mental health = deviating from criteria set by
Jahoda that assesses mental health in the same way physical health
may be assessed. Looks for signs that suggest an absence of wellbeing.
Includes: self-actualisation, environmental mastery, autonomy +
positive attitudes towards oneself
AO3
— statistical infrequency – not all statistical infrequent behaviours are
negative
— sets an objective definition for abnormality
— not everyone benefits from labels
— deviation from social norms – cultural relativism
— leads to human rights abuse
— Failure to function adequately – easy criteria to identify abnormality
— subjective
— takes into account patient’s subjective experience
— deviation from social norms aren’t always bad e.g. extreme sports
— deviation from ideal mental health – cultural relativism (biased –
individualist cultures)
— comprehensive definition
— unrealistically high expectations of mental health
2. Describe + evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias
AO1
— the two-process model states that phobias are acquired by classical
conditioning + maintained through operant conditioning
— classical conditioning involves learning to associate something
which we don’t initially fear (neutral stimulus) with something that
already triggers fear (unconditioned stimulus)
, — this conditioning is the generalised to similar objects, e.g. Little
Albert’s fear of white rats was generalised to other furry objects (even
Santa Claus)
— the phobia is then maintained through operant conditioning as
responses acquired through classical conditioning usually tend to
decline over time
— operant conditioning takes place when our behaviour is reinforced
or punished – reinforcement increases frequency of behaviour
— in phobias, an individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant (neg
reinforcement) which results in desirable consequence of no fear, means
behaviour will be repeated
— whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus, we successfully escape fear
+ anxiety that we should have suffered if remaining there
— fear reduction reinforces avoidance behaviour so phobia is
maintained
AO3
— theory has good explanatory power as it was a definite step
forwards when it was proposed in 1960 as it went beyond Watson +
Rayner’s concept of classical conditioning. It explained how phobias
could be maintained over time + this had an important implication for
therapies – explains why patients need to be exposed to stimulus. Once
patient is prevented from practicing avoidance behaviours, behaviour
ceases to be reinforced + so it declines. Application to therapy is a
strength of the model
— alternative explanation for avoidance behaviour – not all avoidance
behaviour results in anxiety reduction (especially more complex
phobias). At least some behaviour is motivated by positive feelings of
safety + this is the reason for not wanting to remain with a stimulus.
This explains why some agoraphobic patients are able to leave their
house with a trusted person but not alone -> avoidance is motivated by
anxiety reduction
— incomplete evaluation of phobias – evolutionary factors have an
important role in phobias. Adaptive to acquire fears – biological
preparedness -> innate predisposition to acquire certain fears e.g.
snakes
— some phobias aren’t the result of a bad experience so classical
conditioning cannot explain them. For example, someone may have a
fear of snakes although they’ve never actually met one
3. Outline + evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias
AO1
— Systematic desensitisation – gradual treatment of phobia
— Reciprocal inhibition + counter conditioning
— Anxiety hierarchy, relaxation + exposure
— Flooding – immediate exposure for 2/3 hours
— Eliminates avoidance behaviours
— Extinction of association between CS + CR
