Chapter 17 – psychological disorders
Trephination – creating a small circular hole in the skull to lessen pain and some used it centuries
ago to release evil spirits, which were known to cause depression or schizophrenia. This often led to
fatalities.
During these times, many were killed, burnt at stake or attacked incessantly due to the belief that
they were possessed or instigated by the devil. Drowning women back then allowed them to
become posthumously declared pure. Women who floated were in trouble, deemed to be cursed.
Some psychiatrists tried to claim that there was a biological basis in psychological disorders, such as
dormant syphilis causing irrationalities and later, diagnosis of severe mental conditions.
The vulnerability to mental disorders is measured on a scale called the Diathesis-stress model,
where everyone has a degree of vulnerability, ranging from high to low, of suffering from a disease
as a result of exposure to stress. This degree of vulnerability often depends on one’s biological
predisposition, so having a certain genotype, and social aspects, so poverty, low social support and
maladaptive traits. Stressors include occupational setbacks, economical adversity, interpersonal
dilemmas and environmental catastrophes.
Abnormal in one culture may not be abnormal in another culture, thus diagnosing mental illness
consistently is difficult, as for some, the symptoms of depression are misconstrued. Some take self-
harming in the streets as psychotic and unlawful, but in some regions, this initiation brings them,
closer to their community.
Homosexuality was considered a mental illness not too long ago and even today, it can be
stigmatised in some countries or seen as unlawful/abnormal. Not in the west though.
Nowadays, abnormality has three common criteria: distress, dysfunction and deviance from social
norms. These behaviours are seen as maladaptive and often self-destructive. They also do not
comply by the usual societal norms, with many negative judgements arising when it comes to a
sufferer. Something a punk rocker indulges in could very well be seen as abnormal by an Eastern
standpoint.
MEN HAVE CALLED ME MAD, BUT THE QUESTION IS NOT YET SETTLED, WHETHER MADNESS IS OR
IS NOT THE LOFTIEST INTELLIGENCE – WHETHER MUCH THAT IS GLORIOUS – WHETHER ALL THAT IS
PROFOUND – DOES NOT SPRING FROM DISEASE OF THOUGHT – FROM MOODS OF MIND EXALTED
AT THE EXPENSE OF THE GENERAL INTELLECT. THOSE WHO DREAM BY DAY ARE COGNIZANT OF
MANY THINGS WHICH ESCAPE THOSE WHO DREAM ONLY BY NIGHT – EDGAR ALLAN POE.
Diagnosing mental disorders
Classification requires methods to be reliable, so consistent over time and agreeable, as well as valid,
so whatever is being measures takes everything about the initial subject into consideration and
measures it all appropriately. These measures must be consistent over many different studies and
peers should come to almost the same conclusions across the studies. Manuals like the ICD
(international classification of diseases) and the DSM are therefore essential when describing and
explaining what symptoms lead to diseases. Psychoses is losing touch with reality, neuroses is not as
serious, described as a low mood and anxious, neurotic behaviour. These manuals describe both as
separate entities, thus they are essential reads for aspiring psychologists.
, The ICD covers most diseases, but DSM only covers mental disorders. The main issue with
classification is stigma and labelling leading to self-fulfilling prophecies or preconceptions about
someone purely because someone told you they can be rude sometimes. This leads to treating
others differently to how you would have treated them without knowledge of these labels. Prejudice
and ignorance make it difficult to integrate into a harsh society, especially in occupational zones. It is
often compared to having the label ex-convict. A study by Rosenhan proves that people take labels
and symptoms too extremely and have misconstrued views regarding them, since 9 normal patients
can claim they hear voices and get ‘diagnosed’ with schizophrenia.
Legal consequences
Some claim insanities at their trails due to being deemed unfit and mentally unsound at the time of
the crime. Deemed ‘not competent to stand trial’ means that the defendant is unable to understand,
or they are too disturbed to continue with court hearings, thus they are institutionalised.
Armin Meiwes was re-trialled, his sentence changed to murder rather than manslaughter, which was
done so originally due to his victim consenting to wanting to be harmed and eaten.
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety is a state of apprehension and is natural when considered a reaction to harmful stimuli.
Anxiety disorders are disproportionate, high frequency and intensity reactions to threatening or
even daily, unharmful stimuli. Anxiety often leaves people in a state of fight or flight, with chronicity
being present in those suffering from anxiety disorders. Elevated heart rates, high blood pressures,
shortness of breath, rapid pulse, profuse perspiration and many more symptoms begin to surface as
a result of an overactive sympathetic nervous system. The four components of anxiety are the
aforementioned physiological conditions, biological aspects, so ill perception of the ability to cope
efficiently, subjective appraisal, so misinterpreting a normal stimuli as over exertive or threatening,
and behavioural components, which include physical actions taken in response to the stimuli.
Phobic disorder Generalised anxiety Panic disorder OCD PTSD
disorder
Irrational fears of Chronic state of Develops Obsessions are Severe anxiety
certain objects or anxiety, not triggered spontaneously, overthinking and caused after a long-
situations by specific stimuli. with intense waves focusing on thoughts term or one-time
State of constant of anxiety and feelings traumatic event
nervousness experienced religiously
People with phobias It is anxiety that an Observable anxiety Compulsions are It caused severe
are avoidant and do individual has been symptoms show, repetitive arousal upon
not go near what subjected to for over with panic attacks behavioural recollection,
they fear, so it is at least a month occurring very responses to these survivor’s guilt,
difficult for regularly. demanding, repetitive dreams
extinction to occur repetitive thoughts and avoidance
Agoraphobia, social Decision making, This disorder can It is extremely Soldiers, rape
phobias or phobias concentration and cause one to difficult to resist victims and
of specific animals memory are develop a phobia, these repetitive catastrophic
and objects. significantly affected usually urges to embark in natural hazard
agoraphobia certain habits survivors may get it
Trephination – creating a small circular hole in the skull to lessen pain and some used it centuries
ago to release evil spirits, which were known to cause depression or schizophrenia. This often led to
fatalities.
During these times, many were killed, burnt at stake or attacked incessantly due to the belief that
they were possessed or instigated by the devil. Drowning women back then allowed them to
become posthumously declared pure. Women who floated were in trouble, deemed to be cursed.
Some psychiatrists tried to claim that there was a biological basis in psychological disorders, such as
dormant syphilis causing irrationalities and later, diagnosis of severe mental conditions.
The vulnerability to mental disorders is measured on a scale called the Diathesis-stress model,
where everyone has a degree of vulnerability, ranging from high to low, of suffering from a disease
as a result of exposure to stress. This degree of vulnerability often depends on one’s biological
predisposition, so having a certain genotype, and social aspects, so poverty, low social support and
maladaptive traits. Stressors include occupational setbacks, economical adversity, interpersonal
dilemmas and environmental catastrophes.
Abnormal in one culture may not be abnormal in another culture, thus diagnosing mental illness
consistently is difficult, as for some, the symptoms of depression are misconstrued. Some take self-
harming in the streets as psychotic and unlawful, but in some regions, this initiation brings them,
closer to their community.
Homosexuality was considered a mental illness not too long ago and even today, it can be
stigmatised in some countries or seen as unlawful/abnormal. Not in the west though.
Nowadays, abnormality has three common criteria: distress, dysfunction and deviance from social
norms. These behaviours are seen as maladaptive and often self-destructive. They also do not
comply by the usual societal norms, with many negative judgements arising when it comes to a
sufferer. Something a punk rocker indulges in could very well be seen as abnormal by an Eastern
standpoint.
MEN HAVE CALLED ME MAD, BUT THE QUESTION IS NOT YET SETTLED, WHETHER MADNESS IS OR
IS NOT THE LOFTIEST INTELLIGENCE – WHETHER MUCH THAT IS GLORIOUS – WHETHER ALL THAT IS
PROFOUND – DOES NOT SPRING FROM DISEASE OF THOUGHT – FROM MOODS OF MIND EXALTED
AT THE EXPENSE OF THE GENERAL INTELLECT. THOSE WHO DREAM BY DAY ARE COGNIZANT OF
MANY THINGS WHICH ESCAPE THOSE WHO DREAM ONLY BY NIGHT – EDGAR ALLAN POE.
Diagnosing mental disorders
Classification requires methods to be reliable, so consistent over time and agreeable, as well as valid,
so whatever is being measures takes everything about the initial subject into consideration and
measures it all appropriately. These measures must be consistent over many different studies and
peers should come to almost the same conclusions across the studies. Manuals like the ICD
(international classification of diseases) and the DSM are therefore essential when describing and
explaining what symptoms lead to diseases. Psychoses is losing touch with reality, neuroses is not as
serious, described as a low mood and anxious, neurotic behaviour. These manuals describe both as
separate entities, thus they are essential reads for aspiring psychologists.
, The ICD covers most diseases, but DSM only covers mental disorders. The main issue with
classification is stigma and labelling leading to self-fulfilling prophecies or preconceptions about
someone purely because someone told you they can be rude sometimes. This leads to treating
others differently to how you would have treated them without knowledge of these labels. Prejudice
and ignorance make it difficult to integrate into a harsh society, especially in occupational zones. It is
often compared to having the label ex-convict. A study by Rosenhan proves that people take labels
and symptoms too extremely and have misconstrued views regarding them, since 9 normal patients
can claim they hear voices and get ‘diagnosed’ with schizophrenia.
Legal consequences
Some claim insanities at their trails due to being deemed unfit and mentally unsound at the time of
the crime. Deemed ‘not competent to stand trial’ means that the defendant is unable to understand,
or they are too disturbed to continue with court hearings, thus they are institutionalised.
Armin Meiwes was re-trialled, his sentence changed to murder rather than manslaughter, which was
done so originally due to his victim consenting to wanting to be harmed and eaten.
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety is a state of apprehension and is natural when considered a reaction to harmful stimuli.
Anxiety disorders are disproportionate, high frequency and intensity reactions to threatening or
even daily, unharmful stimuli. Anxiety often leaves people in a state of fight or flight, with chronicity
being present in those suffering from anxiety disorders. Elevated heart rates, high blood pressures,
shortness of breath, rapid pulse, profuse perspiration and many more symptoms begin to surface as
a result of an overactive sympathetic nervous system. The four components of anxiety are the
aforementioned physiological conditions, biological aspects, so ill perception of the ability to cope
efficiently, subjective appraisal, so misinterpreting a normal stimuli as over exertive or threatening,
and behavioural components, which include physical actions taken in response to the stimuli.
Phobic disorder Generalised anxiety Panic disorder OCD PTSD
disorder
Irrational fears of Chronic state of Develops Obsessions are Severe anxiety
certain objects or anxiety, not triggered spontaneously, overthinking and caused after a long-
situations by specific stimuli. with intense waves focusing on thoughts term or one-time
State of constant of anxiety and feelings traumatic event
nervousness experienced religiously
People with phobias It is anxiety that an Observable anxiety Compulsions are It caused severe
are avoidant and do individual has been symptoms show, repetitive arousal upon
not go near what subjected to for over with panic attacks behavioural recollection,
they fear, so it is at least a month occurring very responses to these survivor’s guilt,
difficult for regularly. demanding, repetitive dreams
extinction to occur repetitive thoughts and avoidance
Agoraphobia, social Decision making, This disorder can It is extremely Soldiers, rape
phobias or phobias concentration and cause one to difficult to resist victims and
of specific animals memory are develop a phobia, these repetitive catastrophic
and objects. significantly affected usually urges to embark in natural hazard
agoraphobia certain habits survivors may get it
