Relationships
Sexual Selection= An evolutionary explanation for partner preference; characteristics that
are best suited to reproduction are passed on to new generations
Genetic Fitness= Characteristics that show genetic robustness
Adaptive= Features that give male advantage over competition
Anisogamy= The difference between male and female sex cells
● Sperm are fast moving and constantly produced in large quantities
● Ovum are larger, produced at intervals for a limited number of years
Inter-Sexual Selection= Strategies used to select a partner between the sexes
Intra-Sexual Selection= Strategies between the same sex
● Some physical characteristics, such as a male peacock’s tail, are signs of genetic
fitness
● Females who select males with such characteristics are more likely to produce robust
offspring
● Other characteristics (e.g. aggressiveness) are adaptive because they provide an
advantage for a male over competitors for reproductive rights
There are 2 types of sexual selection:
1) Inter-Sexual Selection
● Preferred strategy of the female- quality over quantity
● Robert Trivers (1972)- females make a greater investment of time, commitment and
other resources before, during and after the birth of offspring
● Both sexes are choosy- lose out if they invest in substandard partners
● Consequences more serious for the female
● Therefore, female’s optimum mating strategy is to select a genetically fit partner who
is able to provide resources
● Female preference determines features that are passed onto offspring
● Ronald Fisher (1930)- “sexy sons hypothesis”- genes we see today are those that
enhanced reproductive success
● Female who mates with a male who has a certain characteristic will have sons who
inherit this “sexy trait”
● The sons are also then more likely to be selected by females
2) Intra-Sexual Selection
● Preferred strategies of the male- quantity over quality
● Competition between males to be selected by a female
, ● Strategy has given rise to dimorphism- two forms- males and females look very
different due to intra-sexual selection
● Physical competition between males- size matters
● Females- no competition for reproductive rights- no evolutionary drive to larger
females
● Youthfulness selected in females
Evaluations:
1. Research Support for Inter-Sexual Selection:
● Russell Clark and Elaine Hatfield (1989)- sent male and female psychology students
out across campus asking “I have been noticing you around campus, I find you very
attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?”
● No females agreed
● 75% of males agreed
● Supports the view that females are choosier than males
● However, strategies differ according to the length of the relationship
● Buss and Schmitt (2016)- argue that
Self-Disclosure
Self-Disclosure= Revealing personal information about yourself- romantic partners reveal
more about their true selves as their relationship develops. Self disclosure about thoughts
and feelings can strengthen a romantic relationship when used appropriately
Social Penetration Theory:
● Altman and Taylor (1973)
● Gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else- giving away deepest
thoughts and feelings
● As partners increasingly disclose more and more, they “penetrate” more deeply into
each other’s lives
● Breadth and Depth of Penetration
● Onion analogy- more layers of the onion are removed-represents deeper and more
meaningful information being disclosed
● Reis and Shaver (1988)- Positive correlation between increasing quality and trust
within relationships
● High levels of breadth result in low levels of depth due to topics being “off limits”- this
reduces emotional impact and empathy shown by the other person
● There needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure in order for the relationship to
be successful- increases intimacy and deepens the relationship
● When the reciprocal element doesn’t occur, this leads to depenetration
Evaluations:
, 1. Research Support:
● Sprecher and Hendrick (2004)- studied heterosexual dating couples and found
strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure for
both partners
● Couples who used self-disclosure and believed their partner did too were more
satisfied and committed
● Sprecher et al (2013)- relationships are closer when partners take turns to
self-disclose (reciprocated)
● Increases validity of the theory
● However, research is correlational- assumed that greater self-disclosure creates
more satisfaction- correlation doesn’t tell us if this is a valid conclusion
● Could be that the more satisfied the partners are, the more they self disclose
● Or that self-disclosure and satisfaction are independent and caused by a third
variable- e.g. time spent together
2. Real-World Application:
● Romantic partners may use self-disclosure deliberately to increase intimacy and
strengthen their bond
● Haas and Stafford (1998)- 57% of homosexual men and women said self-disclosure
was the main way they maintained and deepened relationships
● If those who limited communication to “small talk” learned how to use self-disclosure,
this could benefit the relationship in terms of deepening satisfaction and commitment
3. Cultural Differences:
● It is not true for all cultures that increasing depth and breadth of self-disclosures
leads to a more satisfying and intimate relationship
● Nu Tang et al (2013)- reviewed research into sexual self-disclosure
● Concluded that people in the US (individualist culture) self-disclosed more sexual
thoughts and feelings than people in China (collectivist culture)
● Despite lower levels of disclosure in China, the levels of satisfaction were no different
to those in the US
● Self-disclosure is a limited explanation- based on findings from individualist cultures
that can’t be generalised to other cultures
Physical Attractiveness
Physical Attractiveness= An important factor in the formation of romantic relationships- there
is a general agreement within and across cultures about what is considered to be physically
attractive
The Halo Effect:
● Dion et al (1972)- Physically attractive people are consistently rated as
strong/kind/sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
● The belief that good looking people probably have these characteristics makes them
even more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them- self-fulfilling
prophecy
Sexual Selection= An evolutionary explanation for partner preference; characteristics that
are best suited to reproduction are passed on to new generations
Genetic Fitness= Characteristics that show genetic robustness
Adaptive= Features that give male advantage over competition
Anisogamy= The difference between male and female sex cells
● Sperm are fast moving and constantly produced in large quantities
● Ovum are larger, produced at intervals for a limited number of years
Inter-Sexual Selection= Strategies used to select a partner between the sexes
Intra-Sexual Selection= Strategies between the same sex
● Some physical characteristics, such as a male peacock’s tail, are signs of genetic
fitness
● Females who select males with such characteristics are more likely to produce robust
offspring
● Other characteristics (e.g. aggressiveness) are adaptive because they provide an
advantage for a male over competitors for reproductive rights
There are 2 types of sexual selection:
1) Inter-Sexual Selection
● Preferred strategy of the female- quality over quantity
● Robert Trivers (1972)- females make a greater investment of time, commitment and
other resources before, during and after the birth of offspring
● Both sexes are choosy- lose out if they invest in substandard partners
● Consequences more serious for the female
● Therefore, female’s optimum mating strategy is to select a genetically fit partner who
is able to provide resources
● Female preference determines features that are passed onto offspring
● Ronald Fisher (1930)- “sexy sons hypothesis”- genes we see today are those that
enhanced reproductive success
● Female who mates with a male who has a certain characteristic will have sons who
inherit this “sexy trait”
● The sons are also then more likely to be selected by females
2) Intra-Sexual Selection
● Preferred strategies of the male- quantity over quality
● Competition between males to be selected by a female
, ● Strategy has given rise to dimorphism- two forms- males and females look very
different due to intra-sexual selection
● Physical competition between males- size matters
● Females- no competition for reproductive rights- no evolutionary drive to larger
females
● Youthfulness selected in females
Evaluations:
1. Research Support for Inter-Sexual Selection:
● Russell Clark and Elaine Hatfield (1989)- sent male and female psychology students
out across campus asking “I have been noticing you around campus, I find you very
attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?”
● No females agreed
● 75% of males agreed
● Supports the view that females are choosier than males
● However, strategies differ according to the length of the relationship
● Buss and Schmitt (2016)- argue that
Self-Disclosure
Self-Disclosure= Revealing personal information about yourself- romantic partners reveal
more about their true selves as their relationship develops. Self disclosure about thoughts
and feelings can strengthen a romantic relationship when used appropriately
Social Penetration Theory:
● Altman and Taylor (1973)
● Gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else- giving away deepest
thoughts and feelings
● As partners increasingly disclose more and more, they “penetrate” more deeply into
each other’s lives
● Breadth and Depth of Penetration
● Onion analogy- more layers of the onion are removed-represents deeper and more
meaningful information being disclosed
● Reis and Shaver (1988)- Positive correlation between increasing quality and trust
within relationships
● High levels of breadth result in low levels of depth due to topics being “off limits”- this
reduces emotional impact and empathy shown by the other person
● There needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure in order for the relationship to
be successful- increases intimacy and deepens the relationship
● When the reciprocal element doesn’t occur, this leads to depenetration
Evaluations:
, 1. Research Support:
● Sprecher and Hendrick (2004)- studied heterosexual dating couples and found
strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure for
both partners
● Couples who used self-disclosure and believed their partner did too were more
satisfied and committed
● Sprecher et al (2013)- relationships are closer when partners take turns to
self-disclose (reciprocated)
● Increases validity of the theory
● However, research is correlational- assumed that greater self-disclosure creates
more satisfaction- correlation doesn’t tell us if this is a valid conclusion
● Could be that the more satisfied the partners are, the more they self disclose
● Or that self-disclosure and satisfaction are independent and caused by a third
variable- e.g. time spent together
2. Real-World Application:
● Romantic partners may use self-disclosure deliberately to increase intimacy and
strengthen their bond
● Haas and Stafford (1998)- 57% of homosexual men and women said self-disclosure
was the main way they maintained and deepened relationships
● If those who limited communication to “small talk” learned how to use self-disclosure,
this could benefit the relationship in terms of deepening satisfaction and commitment
3. Cultural Differences:
● It is not true for all cultures that increasing depth and breadth of self-disclosures
leads to a more satisfying and intimate relationship
● Nu Tang et al (2013)- reviewed research into sexual self-disclosure
● Concluded that people in the US (individualist culture) self-disclosed more sexual
thoughts and feelings than people in China (collectivist culture)
● Despite lower levels of disclosure in China, the levels of satisfaction were no different
to those in the US
● Self-disclosure is a limited explanation- based on findings from individualist cultures
that can’t be generalised to other cultures
Physical Attractiveness
Physical Attractiveness= An important factor in the formation of romantic relationships- there
is a general agreement within and across cultures about what is considered to be physically
attractive
The Halo Effect:
● Dion et al (1972)- Physically attractive people are consistently rated as
strong/kind/sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
● The belief that good looking people probably have these characteristics makes them
even more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them- self-fulfilling
prophecy
