How can the work of Al-Balkhi and Al-Razi help fight the stigma that British
Muslims in today’s world have against seeking treatment for mental illnesses?
The latest quarterly figures on the Improving Access to Psychological Therapies initiative (IAPT) from
the Health And Social Care Information Centre (HSCIC) indicate that more than 80,000 individuals in
England wait more than 28 days for talking therapies. In addition, individuals from Black and
Minority Ethnic groups are less likely to be referred to talking therapies. The data also suggests
people of Mixed, Bangladeshi, and Chinese origins had the fewest referrals. 1 A large portion of the
Minority Ethnic population in Britain is British Muslims, many of whom have stigmas against mental
health, preventing them from seeking the necessary treatment they or their families and community
members are entitled to receive. While there has been significant improvement in mental health
care, many may still choose to not seek treatment or may instead quit prematurely. Several factors
contribute to this, with stigma being the most prominent, hurting both the individuals with mental
illnesses and their communities. As a member of this community, I am able to first-hand witness how
the stigmas present may manifest in daily occurrences.
In today’s modern world, there continue to be misconceptions and a lack of awareness regarding the
religious and social matters that make up the Muslim community. This is particularly concerning
when examining notions of mental illness, where a lack of cultural awareness, sensitivity, and
understanding can impede treatment. A widely held belief by this community is that psychology is a
western construct and supposedly has no place in Islam. However, what many, both in and out of
the Muslim community fail to acknowledge, is that during the Islamic Golden Age, Muslim scholars
contributed massively for the field of psychology to have advanced to where it is today. These
scholars, while being educated in many ‘modern-day’ practices, were also well inclined to their
religion, with their faith providing much of their incentives to study. Such figures include Al-Balkhi,
who was a 9th-century physician. This man is argued to have been one of the first to have applied
cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and made many contributions to the area of psychopathology,
with extensive research looking into obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), its classification,
diagnosis and treatment. Another figure I will be exploring is Al-Razi, who worked as the director of a
hospital in Baghdad, introducing the concept of psychiatric wards as a place to care for those with
mental illness.2 Its pioneering treatments stand in stark contrast to Britain's dehumanising methods
that were used a millennium later. In this essay, I will be deconstructing the many stigmas that
Muslims have and their roots. I will then briefly discuss the Islamic Golden Age and will go on to
works of Al-Razi and Al-Balkhi made during this era, which will be contrasted with the much later
developments of 20th century Britain. Their works, alongside prophetic and religious evidence, will
be used to deconstruct the stigmas. I will then conclude by discussing how religious leaders and
members of the British Muslim community can be motivated, and encourage others, to seek out
mental health treatment when required.
The Greek word ‘stigma’ itself means a “mark made on the skin by burning with a hot iron” 3 In
modern contexts, stigma can be defined as “the situation of the individual who is disqualified from
full social acceptance.”4 It involve stereotypes (negative attitudes and beliefs), or discrimination,
1 Musa Yilanli "Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi and the First Psychiatric Ward." American Journal of Psychiatry Residents'
Journal, 13(9), p. 11
2 Pacific Prime's Blog. 2021. A History of Mental Health - Part 1.
3 Ciftci, A. & Jones, Nev & Corrigan, Patrick. (2013). Mental health stigma in the Muslim community. J Muslim Mental
Health. 7. 17-32.
4 Abuhammad S, Al-Natour A. Mental health stigma: the effect of religiosity on the stigma perceptions of students in
secondary school in Jordan toward people with mental illnesses. Cell Press. 2021;7(5)
, which leads to the inappropriate labelling of people from a particular group 5. There are 2 types of
stigma: social stigma and self-stigma, where self-stigma is cultivated by social stigma. Social stigma is
the prejudice and discrimination from other members of society that blocks an individual’s access to
employment, educational opportunities, health care, and housing. It occurs when members of the
community endorse stereotypes about mental illness and act based on these stereotypes. Self-
stigma occurs when a person belonging to a stigmatised group internalises social prejudice and
directs it toward themselves.6 In the British Muslim community, both types of stigma are prominent.
The reasons for stigma vary from the inability to ‘see’ the illness to the so-called reliance on
“western” practices which are supposedly not in line with Islamic beliefs. Other Muslims may
attribute mental illness to a weakness in faith which has led to possession by jinns (Demons), casting
of black magic or evil eye. Within British Muslim communities today, mental ill-health appears to be
based on cultural, pre-Islamic influences. Pre-Islamic Arabic medicine was replete with discourse
about supernatural phenomena, such as talismans and charms, spirits, etc. and these beliefs were
passed on through generations. With the advent of Islam, these paranormal practises were largely
given up as the Prophet Muhammad ( )صforbade the use of black magic.
These stigmas have also led to the common misguided solutions of simply ‘Praying more’ and for the
mentally ill person to focus on restoring their weakened connection with God and that this alone
should cure the illness. However, according to Islamic tradition, this rhetoric is incorrect as there is a
saying of the Prophet ( )صto “Tie up your camel and then rely (on God)” 7. The message is to ultimately
trust in God but to make all possible efforts. Islam encourages Muslims to both pray and seek
treatment and medical assistance when needed. When a Muslim injures themselves physically, such
as a broken arm, what they should do according to the tradition is seek out a doctor to treat the
broken bones and pray to Allah for a complete recovery. The same premise applies to mental illness:
While the Prophet ( )صand the Quran emphasise the importance of spirituality and connection with
Allah in overcoming such illnesses, they address the human within a person, acknowledge their
struggle and give a practical and holistic overview on how to get better.
Some Muslims may misinterpret God’s command of ‘being patient’ within the Quran. They
perpetuate the idea that patience is simply getting through the trial and hardship while keeping to
yourself, not displaying your emotions. This contradicts the very example in the Quran of the man
who showed the most patience during his lifetime: Prophet Jacob. He had lost his son Joseph and as
a result of crying so intensely and for an extended period, he lost his eyesight. There is also evidence
from the Quran, Sunnah and Seerah (Biography) to show the Prophet ( )صstruggled too with
symptoms of illnesses that would today be described as depression. A year-long episode of
bereavement scholars coined ‘Aamul-Huzn’, “The Year of Sadness”, which he experienced due to the
death of his wife, Khadijah, and Uncle, Abu Talib. He was also rejected at Taif and stoned by its
people when trying to preach the message of Islam during this same year. There are many verses of
the Quran highlighting his grief. In the Quran, Allah says, “So perhaps you are going to kill yourself
after them out of grief if they do not believe in this message.” 8 We see in this ayah, that like us, the
Prophet ( )صwas not immune to psychological and emotional difficulties.
5 Ibid
6 Jami’ At-Tirmidhi, Volume 4, Book 11, Hadith 2517
7 Quran 18:6
8 Yaqeen Institute. Therapy A Millennia Before Modern Psychology | Holistic Healing With Dr. Rania Awaad.; 2020.
Muslims in today’s world have against seeking treatment for mental illnesses?
The latest quarterly figures on the Improving Access to Psychological Therapies initiative (IAPT) from
the Health And Social Care Information Centre (HSCIC) indicate that more than 80,000 individuals in
England wait more than 28 days for talking therapies. In addition, individuals from Black and
Minority Ethnic groups are less likely to be referred to talking therapies. The data also suggests
people of Mixed, Bangladeshi, and Chinese origins had the fewest referrals. 1 A large portion of the
Minority Ethnic population in Britain is British Muslims, many of whom have stigmas against mental
health, preventing them from seeking the necessary treatment they or their families and community
members are entitled to receive. While there has been significant improvement in mental health
care, many may still choose to not seek treatment or may instead quit prematurely. Several factors
contribute to this, with stigma being the most prominent, hurting both the individuals with mental
illnesses and their communities. As a member of this community, I am able to first-hand witness how
the stigmas present may manifest in daily occurrences.
In today’s modern world, there continue to be misconceptions and a lack of awareness regarding the
religious and social matters that make up the Muslim community. This is particularly concerning
when examining notions of mental illness, where a lack of cultural awareness, sensitivity, and
understanding can impede treatment. A widely held belief by this community is that psychology is a
western construct and supposedly has no place in Islam. However, what many, both in and out of
the Muslim community fail to acknowledge, is that during the Islamic Golden Age, Muslim scholars
contributed massively for the field of psychology to have advanced to where it is today. These
scholars, while being educated in many ‘modern-day’ practices, were also well inclined to their
religion, with their faith providing much of their incentives to study. Such figures include Al-Balkhi,
who was a 9th-century physician. This man is argued to have been one of the first to have applied
cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and made many contributions to the area of psychopathology,
with extensive research looking into obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), its classification,
diagnosis and treatment. Another figure I will be exploring is Al-Razi, who worked as the director of a
hospital in Baghdad, introducing the concept of psychiatric wards as a place to care for those with
mental illness.2 Its pioneering treatments stand in stark contrast to Britain's dehumanising methods
that were used a millennium later. In this essay, I will be deconstructing the many stigmas that
Muslims have and their roots. I will then briefly discuss the Islamic Golden Age and will go on to
works of Al-Razi and Al-Balkhi made during this era, which will be contrasted with the much later
developments of 20th century Britain. Their works, alongside prophetic and religious evidence, will
be used to deconstruct the stigmas. I will then conclude by discussing how religious leaders and
members of the British Muslim community can be motivated, and encourage others, to seek out
mental health treatment when required.
The Greek word ‘stigma’ itself means a “mark made on the skin by burning with a hot iron” 3 In
modern contexts, stigma can be defined as “the situation of the individual who is disqualified from
full social acceptance.”4 It involve stereotypes (negative attitudes and beliefs), or discrimination,
1 Musa Yilanli "Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi and the First Psychiatric Ward." American Journal of Psychiatry Residents'
Journal, 13(9), p. 11
2 Pacific Prime's Blog. 2021. A History of Mental Health - Part 1.
3 Ciftci, A. & Jones, Nev & Corrigan, Patrick. (2013). Mental health stigma in the Muslim community. J Muslim Mental
Health. 7. 17-32.
4 Abuhammad S, Al-Natour A. Mental health stigma: the effect of religiosity on the stigma perceptions of students in
secondary school in Jordan toward people with mental illnesses. Cell Press. 2021;7(5)
, which leads to the inappropriate labelling of people from a particular group 5. There are 2 types of
stigma: social stigma and self-stigma, where self-stigma is cultivated by social stigma. Social stigma is
the prejudice and discrimination from other members of society that blocks an individual’s access to
employment, educational opportunities, health care, and housing. It occurs when members of the
community endorse stereotypes about mental illness and act based on these stereotypes. Self-
stigma occurs when a person belonging to a stigmatised group internalises social prejudice and
directs it toward themselves.6 In the British Muslim community, both types of stigma are prominent.
The reasons for stigma vary from the inability to ‘see’ the illness to the so-called reliance on
“western” practices which are supposedly not in line with Islamic beliefs. Other Muslims may
attribute mental illness to a weakness in faith which has led to possession by jinns (Demons), casting
of black magic or evil eye. Within British Muslim communities today, mental ill-health appears to be
based on cultural, pre-Islamic influences. Pre-Islamic Arabic medicine was replete with discourse
about supernatural phenomena, such as talismans and charms, spirits, etc. and these beliefs were
passed on through generations. With the advent of Islam, these paranormal practises were largely
given up as the Prophet Muhammad ( )صforbade the use of black magic.
These stigmas have also led to the common misguided solutions of simply ‘Praying more’ and for the
mentally ill person to focus on restoring their weakened connection with God and that this alone
should cure the illness. However, according to Islamic tradition, this rhetoric is incorrect as there is a
saying of the Prophet ( )صto “Tie up your camel and then rely (on God)” 7. The message is to ultimately
trust in God but to make all possible efforts. Islam encourages Muslims to both pray and seek
treatment and medical assistance when needed. When a Muslim injures themselves physically, such
as a broken arm, what they should do according to the tradition is seek out a doctor to treat the
broken bones and pray to Allah for a complete recovery. The same premise applies to mental illness:
While the Prophet ( )صand the Quran emphasise the importance of spirituality and connection with
Allah in overcoming such illnesses, they address the human within a person, acknowledge their
struggle and give a practical and holistic overview on how to get better.
Some Muslims may misinterpret God’s command of ‘being patient’ within the Quran. They
perpetuate the idea that patience is simply getting through the trial and hardship while keeping to
yourself, not displaying your emotions. This contradicts the very example in the Quran of the man
who showed the most patience during his lifetime: Prophet Jacob. He had lost his son Joseph and as
a result of crying so intensely and for an extended period, he lost his eyesight. There is also evidence
from the Quran, Sunnah and Seerah (Biography) to show the Prophet ( )صstruggled too with
symptoms of illnesses that would today be described as depression. A year-long episode of
bereavement scholars coined ‘Aamul-Huzn’, “The Year of Sadness”, which he experienced due to the
death of his wife, Khadijah, and Uncle, Abu Talib. He was also rejected at Taif and stoned by its
people when trying to preach the message of Islam during this same year. There are many verses of
the Quran highlighting his grief. In the Quran, Allah says, “So perhaps you are going to kill yourself
after them out of grief if they do not believe in this message.” 8 We see in this ayah, that like us, the
Prophet ( )صwas not immune to psychological and emotional difficulties.
5 Ibid
6 Jami’ At-Tirmidhi, Volume 4, Book 11, Hadith 2517
7 Quran 18:6
8 Yaqeen Institute. Therapy A Millennia Before Modern Psychology | Holistic Healing With Dr. Rania Awaad.; 2020.
