Human Growth and Development WGU c217 Question and answer 2022

Human Growth and Development WGU c217 Question and answer 2022Nature versus nurture controversy experiences (nurture) or genetics (nature) influences development Nature versus nurture differences nature preprogrammed and nurture experiences Continuity theories Steady growth process Discontinuity (stage) vs Continuity Stage is qualitative Child development vs. Life Span Perspective Freud and Piaget = child development Erikson = life span Child Development theory complete once reach adolescence Life Span theory continues throughout life span Universality vs. context-specific development Universality (Piaget) = same order and same age Context-specific (Bronfenbrenner) = takes place in various contexts Context-specific development Collectivist cultures vs. individualistic cultures changes development Cognitive development theory Based on the notion that cognitive abilities are developed as individuals mature physiologically and have opportunity to interact with environment (Piaget) Equilibration of accommodation and assimilation Piaget argues that normally we are in this state, when a new stimulus presents we enter state of disequilibrium Accommodation Adjusting prior knowledge gained through former experiences and interactions Assimilation Fitting together the new information with what has been previously known or understood Constructivism Piaget position on learning. Children construct schema, organized patterns of thought or action, Based on the experiences that they have actively exploring the environment Piaget Constructivism considered a stage theory Piaget Constructivism Four Stages 1. Sensorimotor (birth - 2) 2. Preoperational (2-7) 3. Concrete Operations (7-11) 4. Formal Operaitons (11-15) Preoperational stage egocentrism, rigidity of thought, semi logical reasoning, limited social cognition Concrete Operations Beginning of operational thinking, can perform transformations, understand reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, and conservation, group into categories, make inferences, inductive reasoning Formal Operations higher ordered critical thinking, adult thinking, ultimate stage of cognitive development, scientific method, logical, abstract and hypothetical thought, deductive and inductive reasoning Kohlberg extended Piaget model to study of moral reasoning Information processing approach newer approach to studying cognitive development, uses computer as metaphor for human mind Learning theory (or behaviorist theory) Developmental change as the product of learning Learning To find as changes in observable behavior Behavioral psychology important figures Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura Learning theory behavior is controlled by stimuli in the environment Pavlov Classical Conditioning Learning takes place when reflexive behavior comes under the control of a novel stimulus in the environment Reflex unlearned behavior present at birth, unconscious Generalization Observed when a conditioned response solicited by stimuli similar to the original CS Discrimination Opposite of generalization. Process of conditioning a response to occur only after specific stimulus is presented Extinction Unlearning of a CR Emotional responses at birth Love, anger, and fear Skinner Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) Behavior is shaped by rewarding or punishing consequences that follow Reinforcement Process of rewarding a behavior Shaping of behavior Skinner argued that two processes of reinforcement and punishment control the shaping of behavior Positive reinforcement Reward or rewarding condition that is experienced after a behavioral response increasing the probability that the response will be repeated under the same stimulus conditions in the future Negative reinforcement Unpleasant condition is removed when the behavioral responses is emitted Bandura Social-cognitive theory of learning (social learning theory) Social-cognitive theory Changes in behavior are acquired not only through the process of conditioning, but also through observational learning Modeling Observing the behavior of a model and then later imitating that behavior Self-efficacy Subjective judgment a person makes that he or she will be successful in the attempt to imitate a model Vicarious reinforcement affect that seeing a model being reinforced has in observational learning Psychodynamic theory (psychoanalytic theory) Freud Five Stages of psychosexual development Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital Freud - first three most important Erikson's psychosocial stages of development Stage theory that personality continues to develop over the entire lifespan. Did not stress unconscious motives or desires. However, like Freud, did feel that events that occur early in development can leave a permanent mark on later development. Freud vs Erikson Psychosexual vs Psychosocial Erikson psychosocial theory Developing individual is faced with social emotional tasks that progressively enabled the individual to function in the social world. The ego either develops a strength or weakness in adapting socially. Eight stages with two polarities. Eight stages of psychosocial theory 1. Trust vs Mistrust (Childhood) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Childhood) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Childhood) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood) 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood) Trust vs. Mistrust Birth - 1 year. Infants needs to be met by responsive, sensitive caretakers. If this occurs, a basic sense of trust and optimism develops. If not, mistrust and fear of the future results. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 1-3 years. Children begin to express self-control by climbing, exploring, touching, and toilet training. Parents can foster a sense of autonomy by encouraging children to try new things. If restrained or punished harshly, shame and doubt can develop. Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6 years. Children are asked to assume more responsibility. Through play, children learn to plan, undertake, and carry out a task. Parents can encourage initiative by giving children the freedom to play, to use their imagination, etc. Children who are criticized or discouraged from taking the initiative learn to feel guilty. Industry vs. Inferiority 6-11 years. In elementary school, children learn skills that are valued by society. Success or failure while learning these skills can have lasting effects on a child's feelings of adequacy. Identity vs. Role Confusion Adolescence. The development of identity involves finding out who we are, what we value, and where we are headed in life. In their search for identity, adolescents experiment with different roles. If we establish an integrated image of ourselves as a unique person, then we establish a sense of identity. If not, role confusion results and can be expressed through anger and resentment. Intimacy vs. Isolation Young Adulthood. At this time we are concerned with establishing intimate, long-term relationships with others. If we have successfully resolved the identity crisis, we can be warm and open with others. If we are unsure of our identity or if we have developed an unhealthy identity, then we may avoid others or keep them at an emotional distance. Generativity vs. Stagnation Adulthood. This stage centers around the concern for the next generation. Successful development shows adults sharing their life-acquired wisdom and caring for the growth of the community. Complacency in this stage leads to stagnation and potentially to depression and loneliness. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Late Adulthood. If a person looking back on his or her life can believe that it has been meaningful and relatively successful, then a sense of integrity develops. If all that is seen are wasted opportunities and meaninglessness, the person will be disgusted. Despair will follow disgust if the person feels it is too late to change. Sociocultural theory Argues that there is a bidirectional relationship between the child and the sociocultural environment. The child influences the people and the environments as much as those people and environments influence the child.