Final Exam Study Guide AP III
Essay questions to know
What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and how
they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents
Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune responses
Adaptive immunity has both specificity and memory and is divided into 2 types
1 Cell-mediated
2 Antibody-mediated
In cell-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells
The antigen is eliminated
In antibody-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and differentiate into a
clone of effector cells that produce antibodies
The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us against invasion of a wide
variety of pathogens and their toxins.
We are born with this kind of immunity
Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of invaders.
1st: Skin and mucous membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
a. The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body.
It is found in the left hypochondriac region between stomach and the
diaphragm. It is composed of white pulp and red pulp. Red pulp filters
blood and gets rid of old or damaged blood cells. White pulp consists
of immune cells and helps fight infection. The spleen acts as a blood
filter, if it detects bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it and the lymph
nodes create lymphocytes which act as defenders.
, What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration. What
are their functions and Location.
1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between
the atmosphere and the lungs that occurs when we inhale and exhale
2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli.
3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into
body cells and carbon dioxide from body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem that regulate
breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the pontine respiratory center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the ventral respiratory group
(AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group (AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates
impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal nerves.
These impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation. When the nerves
are not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall, passive exhalation. The
VRG is only activated during forceful inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to work. An important
part of the VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in the generation of the
rhythm of breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls rate of
involuntary respiration; motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How does
loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues.
Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment and the tissues is the
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried
both physically dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide
is carried physically dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as carbamino
compounds, and as bicarbonate.
Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically combined to the
hemoglobin in the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is normally transported combined with
hemoglobin than is physically dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular
system could not supply sufficient oxygen to meet tissue demands.
, Oxygen is loaded in blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the oxygen tension is 100 mm Hg
as a result of alveolar ventilation. Oxygen is unloaded from the blood in the peripheral tissues
where the oxygen tension is roughly 40 mm Hg as a result of peripheral tissue oxygen
consumption.
Calculation of minute ventilation and mean arterial pressure
(862) The minute ventilation (MV)- the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute- is
respiratory rate multiplied by tidal volume:
MV = 12 breaths/ min x 500 mL/ breath
= 6 liters/ min
741) Mean arterial pressure (MAP), the average blood pressure in arteries, is roughly one-third of
the way between the diastolic and systolic pressures. It can be estimated as follows:
MAP = diastolic BP + 1/3 (systolic BP−diastolic BP)
Amount of air that moves in & out of lungs during normal breathing (500 ml normal)
Flow of blood in the heart
Blood flows through the heart first through the right atrium. It is deoxygenated blood that
comes from the inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, and coronary sinus. The blood then
goes through the tricuspid valve then to the right ventricle. After the right ventricle it goes
through the pulmonary valve then to the pulmonary artery .the blood then goes to the lungs
to become oxygenated.Oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins
into the left atrium. It goes through the mitral valve then left ventricle. It then goes to the
aortic valve then to the aorta then to the body.
Blood cell lines
3 blood cell lines under
Myeloid-
MAST TISSUE
RBC-(Erythrocyte), CFU-E, Proerythroblast
Platelets-Megakaryoblast, CFU-Meg
Essay questions to know
What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and how
they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents
Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune responses
Adaptive immunity has both specificity and memory and is divided into 2 types
1 Cell-mediated
2 Antibody-mediated
In cell-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells
The antigen is eliminated
In antibody-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and differentiate into a
clone of effector cells that produce antibodies
The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us against invasion of a wide
variety of pathogens and their toxins.
We are born with this kind of immunity
Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of invaders.
1st: Skin and mucous membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
a. The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body.
It is found in the left hypochondriac region between stomach and the
diaphragm. It is composed of white pulp and red pulp. Red pulp filters
blood and gets rid of old or damaged blood cells. White pulp consists
of immune cells and helps fight infection. The spleen acts as a blood
filter, if it detects bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it and the lymph
nodes create lymphocytes which act as defenders.
, What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration. What
are their functions and Location.
1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between
the atmosphere and the lungs that occurs when we inhale and exhale
2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli.
3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into
body cells and carbon dioxide from body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem that regulate
breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the pontine respiratory center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the ventral respiratory group
(AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group (AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates
impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal nerves.
These impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation. When the nerves
are not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall, passive exhalation. The
VRG is only activated during forceful inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to work. An important
part of the VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in the generation of the
rhythm of breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls rate of
involuntary respiration; motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How does
loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues.
Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment and the tissues is the
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried
both physically dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide
is carried physically dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as carbamino
compounds, and as bicarbonate.
Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically combined to the
hemoglobin in the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is normally transported combined with
hemoglobin than is physically dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular
system could not supply sufficient oxygen to meet tissue demands.
, Oxygen is loaded in blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the oxygen tension is 100 mm Hg
as a result of alveolar ventilation. Oxygen is unloaded from the blood in the peripheral tissues
where the oxygen tension is roughly 40 mm Hg as a result of peripheral tissue oxygen
consumption.
Calculation of minute ventilation and mean arterial pressure
(862) The minute ventilation (MV)- the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute- is
respiratory rate multiplied by tidal volume:
MV = 12 breaths/ min x 500 mL/ breath
= 6 liters/ min
741) Mean arterial pressure (MAP), the average blood pressure in arteries, is roughly one-third of
the way between the diastolic and systolic pressures. It can be estimated as follows:
MAP = diastolic BP + 1/3 (systolic BP−diastolic BP)
Amount of air that moves in & out of lungs during normal breathing (500 ml normal)
Flow of blood in the heart
Blood flows through the heart first through the right atrium. It is deoxygenated blood that
comes from the inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, and coronary sinus. The blood then
goes through the tricuspid valve then to the right ventricle. After the right ventricle it goes
through the pulmonary valve then to the pulmonary artery .the blood then goes to the lungs
to become oxygenated.Oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins
into the left atrium. It goes through the mitral valve then left ventricle. It then goes to the
aortic valve then to the aorta then to the body.
Blood cell lines
3 blood cell lines under
Myeloid-
MAST TISSUE
RBC-(Erythrocyte), CFU-E, Proerythroblast
Platelets-Megakaryoblast, CFU-Meg
