Philosophy of Science and Methodology
Lecture Notes
Lecture 1
Part A: Clashing views on science
1.1 The problem with facts today
Corona pandemic: science is everywhere in the news
- Science has given us insight in the virus and what measures we should take to cure
ourselves
- It brings up a lot of philosophical questions regarding health, life, death, solidarity,
knowledge
o Knowledge: what knowledge should we believe? What is good knowledge
and what is bad knowledge?
- The coronavirus is characterized as an issue
o But how do we know what aspect about this issue is true and false?
▪ False information is spread around and shared as “facts”
The problem with facts today is that:
- They are up for discussion these days
- It’s important to know the facts to:
o To make choices (corona: should I shake someone’s hand, or not?)
o To take decisions
o To make policy (corona: governments need to make policies based on
scientifically proven facts)
- We can usually look for facts from:
o Science: natural and social sciences
▪ Science is “the crowning achievement of the human mind”
▪ We look at science for all kinds of things, and usually we accept what
science says at facts
Examples of science proving natural facts:
- The flu is caused by viruses
- Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius
- The Law of Gravity
- Being gay is natural (science believes being gay is a natural variation of sexuality)
Examples of science proving social facts: these are often counterintuitive (they go against
what we’re used to)
- We live longer than we used to
o 1541: the mean age of death was 33
o 2011: the mean age of death was 80 (in Italy)
- There are fewer poor people
o 1980: 53% of the absolute world population were poor
o 2011: 17% of the absolute world population were poor
- We are more literate
, o 1475: 18% of the population were literate
o 2011: 95% of the Dutch population were literate
Examples of science proving technological facts (applications): science has greatly assisted
in the evolution of technology (phones)
- Self-driving cars
- Cloned animals (Snoopy, first cloned dog on earth)
- MRI scans
- Robots
1.2 Two philosophical positions about science
Not everyone agrees on the benefits and successes of science, both among the general
public and intellectuals
Two basic (and differing) philosophical positions about science:
Scientism: “science is vastly superior to all other attempts at securing knowledge as its laws
provide certainty” (book, pg. 11)
- Individuals who are “real fans” and protagonists of science
- They believe science produces certain knowledge: “age of science of the age of
certainty”
o “Our mind is a perfect mirror of reality”
- Other key words: facts, science is the truth, rationality
- Closely associated with modernism = modern thinking: rational secular (= without
religion)
o You think for yourself
o You only use reason
o Modernity
- Knowledge and truth are about nature and human are only found and by and in
science
- Slogan of scientism: the scientific method is the only method to obtain facts and the
truth. Science is about everything.
- ‘Icons’ (symbols or representatives) of scientism (or accused of scientism):
o Richard Dawkins
o Daniel Dennett
o Lawrence Krauss
o Steven Pinker
Skepticism: “science does not give certainty; it is equal to other forms of knowledge as
science is a faith” (book, pg. 12-13)
- Philosophers who think critically about science
- They are more or less against methodological rules
- They plea for a pluralistic conception of rationality and knowledge
o “Our mind is a crooked mirror of reality; we know nothing, and we never
will”
- Other key words: More than one truth, truth is experience, uncertainty, knowledge
= oppressive power, science is an ideology rather than objective facts
, - Closely associated with post-modernism = post (after) modernism: also, secular (=
without religion) thinking but different because there is more room for individual
and emotional expression
- Knowledge and truth are about social constructions that need ‘deconstruction’
relativism/nihilism
o They are constructed in the social world by people in a deliberate way
o It’s mandatory to be critical of these social constructions
o Relativism: every personal truth has the same value (f.e. science is not
different from any personal belief)
o Nihilism: one doesn’t believe in anything anymore
- Slogan of skepticism: “anything goes”
- ‘Icons’ (symbols or representatives) of skepticism (or accused of scientism):
skepticism:
o Paul Feyerabend: in his book, he pleads for listening to people (non-scientific
people) and generally goes “against the method”
These two differing positions provide an ongoing debate that keeps coming back in the
history of philosophy of science.
- In this course, we’re going to try to think about science between scientism and
skepticism
1.3 Anything goes?
Inspired by Paul Feyerabend’s book Against Method that prides on the “anything goes”
slogan of skepticism.
Song - “Anything Goes” by Lady Gaga and Tony Bennett
Skepticism is expressed in the lyrics:
- “Anything goes”
- “Good’s bad today”
- “Day’s night today”
- “Black’s white today”
- “When most guys today that women prize today are just silly gigolos”
Scientism versus skepticism in philosophy:
- Can be compared to a family feud among philosophers
- Philosophical skepticism is more critical thinking about science within the
boundaries of philosophy
o Also called epistemic skepticism: skepticism about knowledge
Scientism versus skepticism in society:
- There’s been a radical interpretation of philosophical skepticism that has become
like a “raging fire” in society
o This is known as relativism: everything is relative, and science is just an
opinion
- The background of the issue/societal debate is around:
Lecture Notes
Lecture 1
Part A: Clashing views on science
1.1 The problem with facts today
Corona pandemic: science is everywhere in the news
- Science has given us insight in the virus and what measures we should take to cure
ourselves
- It brings up a lot of philosophical questions regarding health, life, death, solidarity,
knowledge
o Knowledge: what knowledge should we believe? What is good knowledge
and what is bad knowledge?
- The coronavirus is characterized as an issue
o But how do we know what aspect about this issue is true and false?
▪ False information is spread around and shared as “facts”
The problem with facts today is that:
- They are up for discussion these days
- It’s important to know the facts to:
o To make choices (corona: should I shake someone’s hand, or not?)
o To take decisions
o To make policy (corona: governments need to make policies based on
scientifically proven facts)
- We can usually look for facts from:
o Science: natural and social sciences
▪ Science is “the crowning achievement of the human mind”
▪ We look at science for all kinds of things, and usually we accept what
science says at facts
Examples of science proving natural facts:
- The flu is caused by viruses
- Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius
- The Law of Gravity
- Being gay is natural (science believes being gay is a natural variation of sexuality)
Examples of science proving social facts: these are often counterintuitive (they go against
what we’re used to)
- We live longer than we used to
o 1541: the mean age of death was 33
o 2011: the mean age of death was 80 (in Italy)
- There are fewer poor people
o 1980: 53% of the absolute world population were poor
o 2011: 17% of the absolute world population were poor
- We are more literate
, o 1475: 18% of the population were literate
o 2011: 95% of the Dutch population were literate
Examples of science proving technological facts (applications): science has greatly assisted
in the evolution of technology (phones)
- Self-driving cars
- Cloned animals (Snoopy, first cloned dog on earth)
- MRI scans
- Robots
1.2 Two philosophical positions about science
Not everyone agrees on the benefits and successes of science, both among the general
public and intellectuals
Two basic (and differing) philosophical positions about science:
Scientism: “science is vastly superior to all other attempts at securing knowledge as its laws
provide certainty” (book, pg. 11)
- Individuals who are “real fans” and protagonists of science
- They believe science produces certain knowledge: “age of science of the age of
certainty”
o “Our mind is a perfect mirror of reality”
- Other key words: facts, science is the truth, rationality
- Closely associated with modernism = modern thinking: rational secular (= without
religion)
o You think for yourself
o You only use reason
o Modernity
- Knowledge and truth are about nature and human are only found and by and in
science
- Slogan of scientism: the scientific method is the only method to obtain facts and the
truth. Science is about everything.
- ‘Icons’ (symbols or representatives) of scientism (or accused of scientism):
o Richard Dawkins
o Daniel Dennett
o Lawrence Krauss
o Steven Pinker
Skepticism: “science does not give certainty; it is equal to other forms of knowledge as
science is a faith” (book, pg. 12-13)
- Philosophers who think critically about science
- They are more or less against methodological rules
- They plea for a pluralistic conception of rationality and knowledge
o “Our mind is a crooked mirror of reality; we know nothing, and we never
will”
- Other key words: More than one truth, truth is experience, uncertainty, knowledge
= oppressive power, science is an ideology rather than objective facts
, - Closely associated with post-modernism = post (after) modernism: also, secular (=
without religion) thinking but different because there is more room for individual
and emotional expression
- Knowledge and truth are about social constructions that need ‘deconstruction’
relativism/nihilism
o They are constructed in the social world by people in a deliberate way
o It’s mandatory to be critical of these social constructions
o Relativism: every personal truth has the same value (f.e. science is not
different from any personal belief)
o Nihilism: one doesn’t believe in anything anymore
- Slogan of skepticism: “anything goes”
- ‘Icons’ (symbols or representatives) of skepticism (or accused of scientism):
skepticism:
o Paul Feyerabend: in his book, he pleads for listening to people (non-scientific
people) and generally goes “against the method”
These two differing positions provide an ongoing debate that keeps coming back in the
history of philosophy of science.
- In this course, we’re going to try to think about science between scientism and
skepticism
1.3 Anything goes?
Inspired by Paul Feyerabend’s book Against Method that prides on the “anything goes”
slogan of skepticism.
Song - “Anything Goes” by Lady Gaga and Tony Bennett
Skepticism is expressed in the lyrics:
- “Anything goes”
- “Good’s bad today”
- “Day’s night today”
- “Black’s white today”
- “When most guys today that women prize today are just silly gigolos”
Scientism versus skepticism in philosophy:
- Can be compared to a family feud among philosophers
- Philosophical skepticism is more critical thinking about science within the
boundaries of philosophy
o Also called epistemic skepticism: skepticism about knowledge
Scientism versus skepticism in society:
- There’s been a radical interpretation of philosophical skepticism that has become
like a “raging fire” in society
o This is known as relativism: everything is relative, and science is just an
opinion
- The background of the issue/societal debate is around:
