INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY.
The word psychology comes from the Greek words psyche which means “mind/soul/spirit” and
logos meaning “knowledge or study”.
Formally defined, psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes of
humans and other animals.
Psychology as a science.
Pysychology is a scientific study.
Psychological research uses scientific methods to provide enlightening and reliable information
about behavior. Science is derived from the Latin word “scire” i.e. to know. Science avoids mere
opinions, intuitions and guesses and strives to know by using objective evidence. Science uses
logic to reason about the possible causes of a phenomenon and then tests the resulting ideas
psychology relies on empirical evidence i.e. information gained from direct observation.The
information is collected systematically through carefully designed experiments; various
assumptions can be validated or refuted.
The study of behavior.
Behavior means the outward (overt) observable acts of a person/ animal, either alone or in a
group.
Study of mental processes
Psychologists also study covert behaviors. These are private, internal activities, such as
thinking; dreaming; remembering; perceiving; reasoning; problem solving and other mental
events.
Study of humans and other animals
Psychology includes the study of human as well as animal behavior. Psychologists study rats,
dogs, cats, insects, pigeons, monkeys, chimpanzees, turtles and other animals.
THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
i) Describe behavior: Answering psychological questions requires a careful description of
behavior.This is based on making a detailed record of behavioral observation.
ii) Understanding behavior: Explaining an event-Stating the causes of behavior and
determining how they led to the described behavior.
− E.g. research on “bystander apathy” reveals that people often fail to help when
other possible helpers are nearby. Why? Because a “diffusion of responsibility”
occurs. Basically, no one feels personally obligated to assist. As a result, the
more potential helpers there are, the less likely it is that anyone will help
(Darley 2000; Darley and Latane, 1968). This can help us explain a perplexing
problem.
1
, iii) Predicting behavior: This is the ability to forecast/ foretell behavior accurately. e.g.
▪ How people learn most effectively.
▪ Bystander apathy – makes a prediction of the chances of getting help-
(having many potential helpers is no guarantee that anyone will help).
iv) Controlling or influencing phenomena: This refers to altering conditions that affect
behavior e.g. if you suggest changes in a classroom that help students learn better, you
have exerted control. If you help a student overcome terrible exam/ test anxiety, control
is involved.
N.B. Psychological control must be used wisely and humanely.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES FOLLOWED IN THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY
A perspective is a broad look at a topic/ issue.
A number of perspectives have been used to explain human thought and behaviour.
i) The Psychoanalytic perspective.
The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of
psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people
suffering from mental illnesses. He viewed psychological traits and disorders as having an origin
in sexual and aggressive drives
ii)The Behavioural perspective(early 20th century)
• Behaviour theorists include B.F. Skinner and J,B. Watson.
• Proposes that behaviour is a product of learning
• It strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on
observable behavior.
• Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and
reinforced.
• Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists and
counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses
iii)The biological perspective
• This helps us understand how the body and the brain work in unison to create emotions,
memories and sensory experiences.
• This perspective studies evolutionary and hereditary influences on behaviour, how
messages are transmitted within the body, and how blood chemistry is related to moods
and motives.
iv)The humanistic perspective
• This school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged during the 1950s.
• This perspective emphasizes the role of motivation on thought and behavior.
• It emphasizes that the human being has the capacity to deliberately choose a meaningful
life pattern and therefore grow to greater maturity and fulfillment.
• It was influenced greatly by the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow.
• Concepts such as self-actualization are an essential part of this perspective.
2
,v)Cognitive Perspective
• This perspective began during the 1960s.
• ‘Cognition’ is the ability to utilize the mind in terms of mental processes such as
memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision-making.
• In this perspective, psychologists explore the way human beings use their mental
processes to reason and solve problems.
• Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, this perspective has
grown tremendously in recent decades.
iv)Cross-cultural perspective
• This is a fairly new perspective in which psychologists and researchers look at human
behavior across different cultures.
• It looks at cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on both psychological and
social functioning.
• The assumption is that each person has a cultural and ethnic background which
influences their thinking and behavior depending on the environment in which they are.
GROWTH OF PSYCHOLOGY
NB: The roots of psychology lie in philosophy (use of logic and specialization to understand the
nature of reality, experience, and values) on the one hand and physiology on the other (Study of
biological workings of the body, including the brain).
Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes and Locke – raised provocative questions about
human thoughts, feelings and behavior. E.g.
▪ Renes Descartes (French) focused attention on the distinction between mind and body. ▪
John Locke (English philosopher) stressed that all human knowledge arises from
experience of the entire world and from reflection about it.
Among the early scientific psychologists were the structuralists.
Approaches to Psychology/schools of thought
A school of thought comprises a system of ideas that a proponent wishes to promote. Theories
are based on schools of thought.
1. Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920): Founder of scientific psychology.
➢ Set up the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.
➢ He defined the task of psychology as the systematic study of the structure of the
conscious adult mind.
➢ Structuralism sought to break experiences into basic elements or structures, in the same
way that a substance like water could be broken into molecules of hydrogen and oxygen.
➢ He sought to identify the building blocks of consciousness i.e.
i) Sensations – which arise from the eyes, ears and other sense organs.
ii) Feelings e.g. fear, anger and love
3
, ➢ The goal of structuralism was to describe the rules that determine how particular
sensations or feelings may occur at the same time or in sequence, combining in various
ways into mental structures.
➢ Wundt was primarily interested in selective attention – the process by which we determine
what we are going to attend to at any given moment.
➢ He borrowed a tool of philosophy i.e. introspection (looking inward) for studying mental
processes.
➢ One important product of the Leipzig laboratory was its students, who carried new,
scientific psychology to the universities in other countries. i.e.
• Stanley Hall – established the first American Psychology Laboratory at John Hopkins
University in 1883.
• J.M. Cattell – first American to be called a professor of psychology at the University of
Pennsylvania in 1888.
• British born Edward Bradford Titchener who went to Cornell University (USA).
He broke down consciousness into 3 basic elements:
o physical o feelings o images Limitations
• If an experience is broken into basic elements, it may not retain its essential character
when subjected to this reductionist approach.
• Introspection – often altered the nature of the conscious mental processes (analyzing
what you are experience changes the experience.)
• The observation of structuralists could not be objectively repeated with the same results
(results were different.)
Contributions
• The study of perception and sensation continues to be a part of contemporary
psychology.
• Looking inward (introspection) is still used in studies of hypnosis, meditation,
problem – solving, moods e.t.c 2. Functionalism
➢ Adherents of functionalism sought to understand how our minds help us to adapt to the world
around us i.e. how to function in it.
➢ Functionalists were strongly influenced by Charles Darwin (1809- 1882), whose theory of
evolution by natural selection stressed that some organisms possess characteristics that enable
them to survive and reproduce more fruitfully than others (Survival for the fittest). Darwin
called these characteristics adaptations.
➢ F unctionalists applied Darwin’s theory to mental characteristics.
➢ E.g. William James (1842 – 1910), who set up the first psychology laboratory in the USA at
Harvard University, studied the ways in which consciousness helps an individual survive and
adapt to the environment.
➢ He wrote a book – “Principles of Psychology” in 1890, which details his view of the nature of
psychology.
➢ Functionalists hold the view that psychological states or processes, such as consciousness
evolved because they serve particular functions, such as guiding the activities of the individual.
4
DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY.
The word psychology comes from the Greek words psyche which means “mind/soul/spirit” and
logos meaning “knowledge or study”.
Formally defined, psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes of
humans and other animals.
Psychology as a science.
Pysychology is a scientific study.
Psychological research uses scientific methods to provide enlightening and reliable information
about behavior. Science is derived from the Latin word “scire” i.e. to know. Science avoids mere
opinions, intuitions and guesses and strives to know by using objective evidence. Science uses
logic to reason about the possible causes of a phenomenon and then tests the resulting ideas
psychology relies on empirical evidence i.e. information gained from direct observation.The
information is collected systematically through carefully designed experiments; various
assumptions can be validated or refuted.
The study of behavior.
Behavior means the outward (overt) observable acts of a person/ animal, either alone or in a
group.
Study of mental processes
Psychologists also study covert behaviors. These are private, internal activities, such as
thinking; dreaming; remembering; perceiving; reasoning; problem solving and other mental
events.
Study of humans and other animals
Psychology includes the study of human as well as animal behavior. Psychologists study rats,
dogs, cats, insects, pigeons, monkeys, chimpanzees, turtles and other animals.
THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
i) Describe behavior: Answering psychological questions requires a careful description of
behavior.This is based on making a detailed record of behavioral observation.
ii) Understanding behavior: Explaining an event-Stating the causes of behavior and
determining how they led to the described behavior.
− E.g. research on “bystander apathy” reveals that people often fail to help when
other possible helpers are nearby. Why? Because a “diffusion of responsibility”
occurs. Basically, no one feels personally obligated to assist. As a result, the
more potential helpers there are, the less likely it is that anyone will help
(Darley 2000; Darley and Latane, 1968). This can help us explain a perplexing
problem.
1
, iii) Predicting behavior: This is the ability to forecast/ foretell behavior accurately. e.g.
▪ How people learn most effectively.
▪ Bystander apathy – makes a prediction of the chances of getting help-
(having many potential helpers is no guarantee that anyone will help).
iv) Controlling or influencing phenomena: This refers to altering conditions that affect
behavior e.g. if you suggest changes in a classroom that help students learn better, you
have exerted control. If you help a student overcome terrible exam/ test anxiety, control
is involved.
N.B. Psychological control must be used wisely and humanely.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES FOLLOWED IN THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY
A perspective is a broad look at a topic/ issue.
A number of perspectives have been used to explain human thought and behaviour.
i) The Psychoanalytic perspective.
The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of
psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people
suffering from mental illnesses. He viewed psychological traits and disorders as having an origin
in sexual and aggressive drives
ii)The Behavioural perspective(early 20th century)
• Behaviour theorists include B.F. Skinner and J,B. Watson.
• Proposes that behaviour is a product of learning
• It strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on
observable behavior.
• Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and
reinforced.
• Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists and
counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses
iii)The biological perspective
• This helps us understand how the body and the brain work in unison to create emotions,
memories and sensory experiences.
• This perspective studies evolutionary and hereditary influences on behaviour, how
messages are transmitted within the body, and how blood chemistry is related to moods
and motives.
iv)The humanistic perspective
• This school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged during the 1950s.
• This perspective emphasizes the role of motivation on thought and behavior.
• It emphasizes that the human being has the capacity to deliberately choose a meaningful
life pattern and therefore grow to greater maturity and fulfillment.
• It was influenced greatly by the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow.
• Concepts such as self-actualization are an essential part of this perspective.
2
,v)Cognitive Perspective
• This perspective began during the 1960s.
• ‘Cognition’ is the ability to utilize the mind in terms of mental processes such as
memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision-making.
• In this perspective, psychologists explore the way human beings use their mental
processes to reason and solve problems.
• Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, this perspective has
grown tremendously in recent decades.
iv)Cross-cultural perspective
• This is a fairly new perspective in which psychologists and researchers look at human
behavior across different cultures.
• It looks at cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on both psychological and
social functioning.
• The assumption is that each person has a cultural and ethnic background which
influences their thinking and behavior depending on the environment in which they are.
GROWTH OF PSYCHOLOGY
NB: The roots of psychology lie in philosophy (use of logic and specialization to understand the
nature of reality, experience, and values) on the one hand and physiology on the other (Study of
biological workings of the body, including the brain).
Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes and Locke – raised provocative questions about
human thoughts, feelings and behavior. E.g.
▪ Renes Descartes (French) focused attention on the distinction between mind and body. ▪
John Locke (English philosopher) stressed that all human knowledge arises from
experience of the entire world and from reflection about it.
Among the early scientific psychologists were the structuralists.
Approaches to Psychology/schools of thought
A school of thought comprises a system of ideas that a proponent wishes to promote. Theories
are based on schools of thought.
1. Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920): Founder of scientific psychology.
➢ Set up the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.
➢ He defined the task of psychology as the systematic study of the structure of the
conscious adult mind.
➢ Structuralism sought to break experiences into basic elements or structures, in the same
way that a substance like water could be broken into molecules of hydrogen and oxygen.
➢ He sought to identify the building blocks of consciousness i.e.
i) Sensations – which arise from the eyes, ears and other sense organs.
ii) Feelings e.g. fear, anger and love
3
, ➢ The goal of structuralism was to describe the rules that determine how particular
sensations or feelings may occur at the same time or in sequence, combining in various
ways into mental structures.
➢ Wundt was primarily interested in selective attention – the process by which we determine
what we are going to attend to at any given moment.
➢ He borrowed a tool of philosophy i.e. introspection (looking inward) for studying mental
processes.
➢ One important product of the Leipzig laboratory was its students, who carried new,
scientific psychology to the universities in other countries. i.e.
• Stanley Hall – established the first American Psychology Laboratory at John Hopkins
University in 1883.
• J.M. Cattell – first American to be called a professor of psychology at the University of
Pennsylvania in 1888.
• British born Edward Bradford Titchener who went to Cornell University (USA).
He broke down consciousness into 3 basic elements:
o physical o feelings o images Limitations
• If an experience is broken into basic elements, it may not retain its essential character
when subjected to this reductionist approach.
• Introspection – often altered the nature of the conscious mental processes (analyzing
what you are experience changes the experience.)
• The observation of structuralists could not be objectively repeated with the same results
(results were different.)
Contributions
• The study of perception and sensation continues to be a part of contemporary
psychology.
• Looking inward (introspection) is still used in studies of hypnosis, meditation,
problem – solving, moods e.t.c 2. Functionalism
➢ Adherents of functionalism sought to understand how our minds help us to adapt to the world
around us i.e. how to function in it.
➢ Functionalists were strongly influenced by Charles Darwin (1809- 1882), whose theory of
evolution by natural selection stressed that some organisms possess characteristics that enable
them to survive and reproduce more fruitfully than others (Survival for the fittest). Darwin
called these characteristics adaptations.
➢ F unctionalists applied Darwin’s theory to mental characteristics.
➢ E.g. William James (1842 – 1910), who set up the first psychology laboratory in the USA at
Harvard University, studied the ways in which consciousness helps an individual survive and
adapt to the environment.
➢ He wrote a book – “Principles of Psychology” in 1890, which details his view of the nature of
psychology.
➢ Functionalists hold the view that psychological states or processes, such as consciousness
evolved because they serve particular functions, such as guiding the activities of the individual.
4
