CHAPTER 1
History, Theories, and Methods
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain what child development is and why it is important to study.
2. Discuss the history of child development. How have views about childhood and child
development changed across time?
3. Describe the major theories of child development and why theories are useful.
4. Discuss the major controversies in the study of child development.
5. Describe how researchers study child development.
6. Discuss the ethical considerations involved in studying child development.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter provides the general introduction to the field of developmental psychology, beginning
with a definition of child development and a discussion of the purposes and goals of theory and
research in the field. After a brief survey of the pioneers in the field of developmental psychology
(Locke, Rousseau, Darwin, Hall, and Binet), each of the major theories of child development is
described and evaluated: psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, biological, ecological, and sociocultural.
Next, the nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, and active-passive controversies in the field are
overviewed. Research methods are then described, including a presentation of the general idea
behind the scientific method, ways of gathering information in child developmental science, the
,correlational method (and its limitations), and how to approach and design experiments. The
chapter ends with a look at the special methods needed to ask questions about development over
time (longitudinal versus cross-sectional research, and the ways in which the cross-sequential
research design handles the advantages and disadvantages of each) and a discussion of unique
ethical issues that should be considered when conducting research with children.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. What Is Child Development? Coming to Terms with Terms
A. Child Development
1. A child is an individual in the period from infancy to puberty.
2. Development will be considered in multiple domains over 5 periods of life: prenatal life,
infancy, early childhood, middle-late childhood, and adolescence.
3. Development (sequence of physical traits, psychological traits, behaviors and adaptation
to the
environment) and growth (changes in size or quantity) are two different concepts
illustrated
in this section.
4. Child development is a field of study that tries to understand the processes that govern
the
appearance and growth of children’s biological structures, psychological traits,
behavior,
understanding, and ways of adapting to the demands of life.
B. Why Do We Study Child Development?
1. We research development out of pure curiosity as well as to gain insight into human
nature, the origins of adult behavior and sex differences, the influences of
culture on development, the origins, and the prevention and treatment
of developmental problems.
2. Research into child development can help to optimize conditions of development.
C. The Development of Child Development
1. In Europe during the Middle Ages, children were often seen as innately evil, which
justified harsh discipline. At the age of 7, considered the “age of
reason,” children were treated as miniature adults.
, 2. During the 17th and 18th centuries, views on children shifted. Philosopher John Locke
believed children came into world as tabula rasa, or “blank slates,”
meaning they were neither innately good nor evil, but shaped by their
environment and experience. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed
that children are inherently good and moral.
3. During the Industrial Revolution, the definition of family narrowed to the nuclear family
rather
than an extended family.
4. In the 20th century, childhood is recognized as a special period in life and child rights in
labor, education, parental neglect, and the justice system were established.
5. Pioneers in the study of child development include Charles Darwin, known for the theory
of evolution, but was also one of the first to keep a baby biography to describe
his son’s development. Stanley Hall established child
development as an academic discipline and used questionnaire
methodology with children, and Alfred Binet developed the first standardized
intelligence test for children.
II. Theories of Child Development
A. What Are Theories of Child Development?
1. Theories are based on assumptions about behavior, help to derive explanations and
predictions, and help in influencing events.
2. Developmentalists need theories to help meet the goals to describe, explain, predict, and
influence behavior.
B. The Psychoanalytic Perspective
1. Psychoanalytic theories view children (and adults) as being involved in conflict between
inner forces that result in outward behavior. These theories propose that
children progress through stages, which are distinct periods of
development, and that experiences during early stages influence later
stages.
2. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development proposes that there are three parts to
personality: the id present at birth represents unconscious
desires, the ego is conscious and balances the needs of the id with
societal demands, and the superego is the moral guide. Further,
Freud proposes that children develop through five stages, each having a different
source of gratification: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. If too little or too much
gratification is experienced during each stage, a person may become
fixated at that particular stage, resulting in various personality traits
later in life. Although Freud’s theory was influential, it is
criticized for being derived from his experiences with troubled patients and
, for lack of an empirical basis. Critics have suggested it placed too much emphasis on
unconscious motives and sexual desires.
3. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposes that successful resolution of
life crises leads to a sense of self-identity. There are eight stages in this
theory that span infancy to old age. This perspective is appealing
because it emphasizes choice (rather than
unconscious drives) and has some empirical support.
4. Terms such as identity crisis have become a part of everyday language.
C. The Learning Perspective: Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
1. A Closer Look--Real Life: The Bell-and-Pad Method for Treating Bed-Wetting. This feature
explains classical conditioning as a method for eliminating bed-wetting. Children
sleep on a metal pad attached to an alarm that will sound and wake them up as soon as
urine comes in contact with the pad. This will train children’s bodies to associate the feeling
of having to urinate with waking up, allowing them to make it to the bathroom. (UCS=
loud bell, UCR= waking up, CS= bladder tension CR= waking up in response to bladder
tension.)
2. John B. Watson argued that psychologists should only study observable behavior, not
mental thoughts or desires, which cannot be seen. This view is known as
behaviorism.
3. Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning by association. An unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). When a
neutral stimulus is repeatedly associated with an UCS, it
become the conditioned stimulus (US) and evokes a response similar to
the UCR, the conditioned response (CR).
4. In operant conditioning, a behavior is associated with its effects. Reinforcement and
reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior and can be positive (something
pleasant added) or negative (something unpleasant removed). Punishments have
the opposite effect and decrease the frequency of a behavior. However, it is important
to note the many drawbacks associated with using punishment, such as not teaching
children acceptable forms of behavior and creating hostility.
5. A Closer Look--Research: Operant Conditioning of Vocalizations in Infants. A study
empirically demonstrated that infants will increase in their
production of vocalizations when reinforced with sounds, smiles, and
touches. This increase was extinguished when the researchers
stopped responding to the babies.
6. Children are taught skills by reinforcing steps along the way, something known as
shaping.
7. Time-out from positive reinforcers discourages children’s misbehavior.
History, Theories, and Methods
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain what child development is and why it is important to study.
2. Discuss the history of child development. How have views about childhood and child
development changed across time?
3. Describe the major theories of child development and why theories are useful.
4. Discuss the major controversies in the study of child development.
5. Describe how researchers study child development.
6. Discuss the ethical considerations involved in studying child development.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter provides the general introduction to the field of developmental psychology, beginning
with a definition of child development and a discussion of the purposes and goals of theory and
research in the field. After a brief survey of the pioneers in the field of developmental psychology
(Locke, Rousseau, Darwin, Hall, and Binet), each of the major theories of child development is
described and evaluated: psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, biological, ecological, and sociocultural.
Next, the nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, and active-passive controversies in the field are
overviewed. Research methods are then described, including a presentation of the general idea
behind the scientific method, ways of gathering information in child developmental science, the
,correlational method (and its limitations), and how to approach and design experiments. The
chapter ends with a look at the special methods needed to ask questions about development over
time (longitudinal versus cross-sectional research, and the ways in which the cross-sequential
research design handles the advantages and disadvantages of each) and a discussion of unique
ethical issues that should be considered when conducting research with children.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. What Is Child Development? Coming to Terms with Terms
A. Child Development
1. A child is an individual in the period from infancy to puberty.
2. Development will be considered in multiple domains over 5 periods of life: prenatal life,
infancy, early childhood, middle-late childhood, and adolescence.
3. Development (sequence of physical traits, psychological traits, behaviors and adaptation
to the
environment) and growth (changes in size or quantity) are two different concepts
illustrated
in this section.
4. Child development is a field of study that tries to understand the processes that govern
the
appearance and growth of children’s biological structures, psychological traits,
behavior,
understanding, and ways of adapting to the demands of life.
B. Why Do We Study Child Development?
1. We research development out of pure curiosity as well as to gain insight into human
nature, the origins of adult behavior and sex differences, the influences of
culture on development, the origins, and the prevention and treatment
of developmental problems.
2. Research into child development can help to optimize conditions of development.
C. The Development of Child Development
1. In Europe during the Middle Ages, children were often seen as innately evil, which
justified harsh discipline. At the age of 7, considered the “age of
reason,” children were treated as miniature adults.
, 2. During the 17th and 18th centuries, views on children shifted. Philosopher John Locke
believed children came into world as tabula rasa, or “blank slates,”
meaning they were neither innately good nor evil, but shaped by their
environment and experience. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed
that children are inherently good and moral.
3. During the Industrial Revolution, the definition of family narrowed to the nuclear family
rather
than an extended family.
4. In the 20th century, childhood is recognized as a special period in life and child rights in
labor, education, parental neglect, and the justice system were established.
5. Pioneers in the study of child development include Charles Darwin, known for the theory
of evolution, but was also one of the first to keep a baby biography to describe
his son’s development. Stanley Hall established child
development as an academic discipline and used questionnaire
methodology with children, and Alfred Binet developed the first standardized
intelligence test for children.
II. Theories of Child Development
A. What Are Theories of Child Development?
1. Theories are based on assumptions about behavior, help to derive explanations and
predictions, and help in influencing events.
2. Developmentalists need theories to help meet the goals to describe, explain, predict, and
influence behavior.
B. The Psychoanalytic Perspective
1. Psychoanalytic theories view children (and adults) as being involved in conflict between
inner forces that result in outward behavior. These theories propose that
children progress through stages, which are distinct periods of
development, and that experiences during early stages influence later
stages.
2. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development proposes that there are three parts to
personality: the id present at birth represents unconscious
desires, the ego is conscious and balances the needs of the id with
societal demands, and the superego is the moral guide. Further,
Freud proposes that children develop through five stages, each having a different
source of gratification: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. If too little or too much
gratification is experienced during each stage, a person may become
fixated at that particular stage, resulting in various personality traits
later in life. Although Freud’s theory was influential, it is
criticized for being derived from his experiences with troubled patients and
, for lack of an empirical basis. Critics have suggested it placed too much emphasis on
unconscious motives and sexual desires.
3. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposes that successful resolution of
life crises leads to a sense of self-identity. There are eight stages in this
theory that span infancy to old age. This perspective is appealing
because it emphasizes choice (rather than
unconscious drives) and has some empirical support.
4. Terms such as identity crisis have become a part of everyday language.
C. The Learning Perspective: Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
1. A Closer Look--Real Life: The Bell-and-Pad Method for Treating Bed-Wetting. This feature
explains classical conditioning as a method for eliminating bed-wetting. Children
sleep on a metal pad attached to an alarm that will sound and wake them up as soon as
urine comes in contact with the pad. This will train children’s bodies to associate the feeling
of having to urinate with waking up, allowing them to make it to the bathroom. (UCS=
loud bell, UCR= waking up, CS= bladder tension CR= waking up in response to bladder
tension.)
2. John B. Watson argued that psychologists should only study observable behavior, not
mental thoughts or desires, which cannot be seen. This view is known as
behaviorism.
3. Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning by association. An unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). When a
neutral stimulus is repeatedly associated with an UCS, it
become the conditioned stimulus (US) and evokes a response similar to
the UCR, the conditioned response (CR).
4. In operant conditioning, a behavior is associated with its effects. Reinforcement and
reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior and can be positive (something
pleasant added) or negative (something unpleasant removed). Punishments have
the opposite effect and decrease the frequency of a behavior. However, it is important
to note the many drawbacks associated with using punishment, such as not teaching
children acceptable forms of behavior and creating hostility.
5. A Closer Look--Research: Operant Conditioning of Vocalizations in Infants. A study
empirically demonstrated that infants will increase in their
production of vocalizations when reinforced with sounds, smiles, and
touches. This increase was extinguished when the researchers
stopped responding to the babies.
6. Children are taught skills by reinforcing steps along the way, something known as
shaping.
7. Time-out from positive reinforcers discourages children’s misbehavior.
