Summary literature per lecture
1. Introduction to research questions
(research perspectives, questions,
priorities, agendas)
Objectives:
1. Understand positivism (objectivist)
2. Understand interpretivism (constructivist)
3. Inductive and deductive research
4. Get acquainted with different research methodologies
Gray chapter 2. Theoretical Perspectives and Research
Methodologies
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- Deductive proof → deduction: begins with universal view of situation and works
backs to particulars.
- Inductive discovery → induction: moves from fragmentary details to connected view
of situation.
The deductive process
Deductive approach moves towards hypothesis testing. Hypotheses present an assertion
about two or more concepts that attempts to explain the relationship between them.
Elaboration of a set principles are tested through empirical observation/experimentation.
Concepts have to be operationalized (made measurable). Hence, measures and indicators
are created.
Stages in the deduction process: organizational mission, theory, hypothesis, operationalize,
testing by corroboration or attempted falsification, examine outcomes, modify theory (if
necessary).
The inductive process
Inductive approach moves from data (collection and analyses) to see if any patterns emerge
that suggest relationships between variables. Observations may lead to constructing
generalizations, relationships and even theories.
The inductive approach does use pre-existing theories/ideas when approaching a problem.
Choices for subjects are dependent on values and concepts (important to formulate overall
purpose)
Accumulation of facts, data, etc → (inductive reasoning) → hypothesis theory testing →
(related theory)→ working theory → (deductive reasoning) → experimental design
,EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND ONTOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Difficult to explore the theories because the number methodologies and perspectives, but
also that the terminology applies is often inconsistent/contradictory.
Epistemology
- tries to understand what is means to know.
- Provides a philosophical background for deciding what kinds of knowledge are
legitimate and adequate.
- Epistemological perspective can help to clarify issues of research design(overarching
structure of the research) and helps to recognize which designs will work (for a given
set of objectives) and which will not.
Ontology
- embodies understanding what is.
- The philosophical study of being in general, or of what applies neutrally to everything
that is real (existence, being, becoming, and reality).
- Research methodologies can be towards a more ‘being’ or ‘becoming’ ontology.
, 1. Objectivism → holds that reality exists independently of consciousness/there is an
objective reality “out there”. Discovering this objective truth, without including your
own feelings and values.
2. Constructivism → truth and meaning are created by the subject’s interaction with
the world. Subjects construct their own meaning in different ways, even in relation to
the same phenomenon.
3. Subjectivism → meaning is imposed on the object by the subject. Subjects do
construct meaning, but do so from within collective unconsciousness, from dreams,
from religious beliefs, etc.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
1. Positivism (objectivist)
Its core argument being that the social world exists externally to the researcher, and that its
properties can be measured directly through observation.
- Reality consists of what is available to the senses (seen, smelt, touched, etc.).
- Inquiry should be based on scientific observation, and therefore on empirical inquiry.
- The natural and human sciences share common logical and methodological
principles, dealing with facts and not with values.
Contradiction:
- Science is interested in producing theoretical explanations but not just on the basis
of what can be observed (except for mathematical formulations and such). Therefore
science mostly does not begin from observations, but from theory, to make
observations intelligible.
2. Interpretivism (constructivist)
Interpretivism looks for culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the
social life-world.
- There is no direct relationship between ourselves (subjects) and the world (object).
- Natural reality and social reality are different → require different kinds of method.
- Symbolic interactionism: people interpret the meaning of objects and actions in the
world and then ac upon those interpretations. Meanings arise from the process of
social interaction and dealing with the phenomena that are encountered.
→ entering the field and observing. Methodologies such as ethnography and the use
of participative observation methods and grounded theory.
- Phenomenology: holds that any attempt to understand social reality has to be
grounded in people’s experiences of that social reality.
- Realism: holds that there is an externally reality ‘out there’ that can be measured –
but achieving this can be difficult.
- Hermeneutics: social reality is seen as socially constructed, rather than being rooted
in objective fact. Interpretation should be given more standing than explanation and
description.
- Naturalistic inquiry: there are multiple constructed realities that cn only be studied
holistically. Prediction and control of outcomes is a largely futile expectation, more
questions than answers.
, 3. Critical inquiry
- Ideas are mediated by power relations
in society.
- Certain groups in society are privileged over others and exert an oppressive force on
subordinate groups.
- What are presented as facts cannot be disentangled from ideology and the self-
interest of dominant groups.
4. Feminism
- Take the view that what a person knows is largely determined by their social
position.
- Feminism regards women themselves as an oppressed social class (whereas Marxism
defines social class in terms of a person’s relationship to the means of production).
5. Postmodernism
- Primary task becomes the deconstruction of texts to expose how values and interests
are embedded within them.
6. Pragmatism
- For pragmatism, an ideology is true only if it works (particularly in promoting equity,
freedom and justice) and generates practical consequences for society.
- Has provided insights for research into management and organizations.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
The chosen method will be influenced by the researcher’s attitude towards the ways in
which theory should be used – whether research should begin with a theoretical
model/perspective (deductive) or whether such models should emerge from the data itself
(inductive).
1. Experimental and quasi-experimental research
- Classical experiments: subjects are randomly assigned to either a experimental or a
control group. Experimental group receives the treatment and the results are
compared with the control group that does not receive the treatment.
, - Independent variable (manipulated/controlled) and a dependent variable (response
that is measured).
- Because of the difficulty to conduct a experimental research, instead quasi-
experimental design is used more often (with the use of existing groups.
- Usually deductive.
- The generation of initial hypotheses and control of variables.
- Accurate (quantitative) measurement of outcomes.
- Generalization from samples to similar populations.
2. Phenomenological research
- Uses relatively unstructured methods of data collection, with an inductive approach.
Therefore, it is more likely to pick up factors that were not part of the original
research focus.
- Phenomenological research is about producing thick descriptions of people’s
experiences and perspectives within their natural settings.
- Often based upon small case studies giving rise to concerns about its generalizability
to other situations.
- Seeks the opinions and subjective accounts and interpretations of participants.
3. Analytical surveys emphasize:
- A deductive approach.
- The identification of the research population and drawing of a representative sample
from the population.
- Control of variables.
- The generation of both qualitative and quantitative data and generalizability of
results.
4. Action research
- Involves close collaboration between researcher and practitioners and places an
emphasis on promoting change within organizations such as offices, hospitals,
schools and prisons.
- Can be highly structured and involve use of experimental and control groups used to
test a hypothesis.
- Can also be quite unstructured and used inductively (and qualitatively).
5. Heuristic inquiry
- A process that begins with a question/problem which the researcher tries to
illuminate or find an answer to.
- A deep personal questioning of what it is they wish to research. Living, sleeping and
merging with the research question.
- Reviewing all the data from personal experiences to identify tacit meanings.
- Forming a creative synthesis, including ideas for and against a proposition.
SELECTING RESEARCH APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES
, Connecting the research elements
Start by considering epistemology. Your approach to research and research methods will be
influenced by whether you think it is possible to try to measure an objective truth
(positivism), or whether you think that the real world cannot be measured in this way
(interpretivism).
With research topic in mind, you will probably have a view as to whether you want to:
1. Measure and generalize to a larger population;
2. To seek ‘thick description’.
What is important, is that whatever philosophy, approach and methodology you adopt for
your research, you should be able to justify your mix in relation to your research philosophy
and research question(s).
Timeframes for research
- Short-term: cross-sectional where the data is collected at one point in time. They
often use a survey methodology.
- Longitudinal study: to study change and development over time.
Exploratory, descriptive, explanatory and interpretative studies
Studies can be classified by their research methodology, but also according to their purpose.
1. Exploratory
Exploratory studies seek to explore what is happening and to ask questions about it.
Useful when not enough is known about a phenomenon.
A search of the literature, talking to experts in the field and conducting focus group
interviews.
2. Descriptive
The purpose of a descriptive study is to provide a picture of a phenomenon as it
naturally occurs. One of the weaknesses of descriptive studies is that they cannot
explain why an event has occurred.
‘What’ questions.
1. Introduction to research questions
(research perspectives, questions,
priorities, agendas)
Objectives:
1. Understand positivism (objectivist)
2. Understand interpretivism (constructivist)
3. Inductive and deductive research
4. Get acquainted with different research methodologies
Gray chapter 2. Theoretical Perspectives and Research
Methodologies
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- Deductive proof → deduction: begins with universal view of situation and works
backs to particulars.
- Inductive discovery → induction: moves from fragmentary details to connected view
of situation.
The deductive process
Deductive approach moves towards hypothesis testing. Hypotheses present an assertion
about two or more concepts that attempts to explain the relationship between them.
Elaboration of a set principles are tested through empirical observation/experimentation.
Concepts have to be operationalized (made measurable). Hence, measures and indicators
are created.
Stages in the deduction process: organizational mission, theory, hypothesis, operationalize,
testing by corroboration or attempted falsification, examine outcomes, modify theory (if
necessary).
The inductive process
Inductive approach moves from data (collection and analyses) to see if any patterns emerge
that suggest relationships between variables. Observations may lead to constructing
generalizations, relationships and even theories.
The inductive approach does use pre-existing theories/ideas when approaching a problem.
Choices for subjects are dependent on values and concepts (important to formulate overall
purpose)
Accumulation of facts, data, etc → (inductive reasoning) → hypothesis theory testing →
(related theory)→ working theory → (deductive reasoning) → experimental design
,EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND ONTOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Difficult to explore the theories because the number methodologies and perspectives, but
also that the terminology applies is often inconsistent/contradictory.
Epistemology
- tries to understand what is means to know.
- Provides a philosophical background for deciding what kinds of knowledge are
legitimate and adequate.
- Epistemological perspective can help to clarify issues of research design(overarching
structure of the research) and helps to recognize which designs will work (for a given
set of objectives) and which will not.
Ontology
- embodies understanding what is.
- The philosophical study of being in general, or of what applies neutrally to everything
that is real (existence, being, becoming, and reality).
- Research methodologies can be towards a more ‘being’ or ‘becoming’ ontology.
, 1. Objectivism → holds that reality exists independently of consciousness/there is an
objective reality “out there”. Discovering this objective truth, without including your
own feelings and values.
2. Constructivism → truth and meaning are created by the subject’s interaction with
the world. Subjects construct their own meaning in different ways, even in relation to
the same phenomenon.
3. Subjectivism → meaning is imposed on the object by the subject. Subjects do
construct meaning, but do so from within collective unconsciousness, from dreams,
from religious beliefs, etc.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
1. Positivism (objectivist)
Its core argument being that the social world exists externally to the researcher, and that its
properties can be measured directly through observation.
- Reality consists of what is available to the senses (seen, smelt, touched, etc.).
- Inquiry should be based on scientific observation, and therefore on empirical inquiry.
- The natural and human sciences share common logical and methodological
principles, dealing with facts and not with values.
Contradiction:
- Science is interested in producing theoretical explanations but not just on the basis
of what can be observed (except for mathematical formulations and such). Therefore
science mostly does not begin from observations, but from theory, to make
observations intelligible.
2. Interpretivism (constructivist)
Interpretivism looks for culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the
social life-world.
- There is no direct relationship between ourselves (subjects) and the world (object).
- Natural reality and social reality are different → require different kinds of method.
- Symbolic interactionism: people interpret the meaning of objects and actions in the
world and then ac upon those interpretations. Meanings arise from the process of
social interaction and dealing with the phenomena that are encountered.
→ entering the field and observing. Methodologies such as ethnography and the use
of participative observation methods and grounded theory.
- Phenomenology: holds that any attempt to understand social reality has to be
grounded in people’s experiences of that social reality.
- Realism: holds that there is an externally reality ‘out there’ that can be measured –
but achieving this can be difficult.
- Hermeneutics: social reality is seen as socially constructed, rather than being rooted
in objective fact. Interpretation should be given more standing than explanation and
description.
- Naturalistic inquiry: there are multiple constructed realities that cn only be studied
holistically. Prediction and control of outcomes is a largely futile expectation, more
questions than answers.
, 3. Critical inquiry
- Ideas are mediated by power relations
in society.
- Certain groups in society are privileged over others and exert an oppressive force on
subordinate groups.
- What are presented as facts cannot be disentangled from ideology and the self-
interest of dominant groups.
4. Feminism
- Take the view that what a person knows is largely determined by their social
position.
- Feminism regards women themselves as an oppressed social class (whereas Marxism
defines social class in terms of a person’s relationship to the means of production).
5. Postmodernism
- Primary task becomes the deconstruction of texts to expose how values and interests
are embedded within them.
6. Pragmatism
- For pragmatism, an ideology is true only if it works (particularly in promoting equity,
freedom and justice) and generates practical consequences for society.
- Has provided insights for research into management and organizations.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
The chosen method will be influenced by the researcher’s attitude towards the ways in
which theory should be used – whether research should begin with a theoretical
model/perspective (deductive) or whether such models should emerge from the data itself
(inductive).
1. Experimental and quasi-experimental research
- Classical experiments: subjects are randomly assigned to either a experimental or a
control group. Experimental group receives the treatment and the results are
compared with the control group that does not receive the treatment.
, - Independent variable (manipulated/controlled) and a dependent variable (response
that is measured).
- Because of the difficulty to conduct a experimental research, instead quasi-
experimental design is used more often (with the use of existing groups.
- Usually deductive.
- The generation of initial hypotheses and control of variables.
- Accurate (quantitative) measurement of outcomes.
- Generalization from samples to similar populations.
2. Phenomenological research
- Uses relatively unstructured methods of data collection, with an inductive approach.
Therefore, it is more likely to pick up factors that were not part of the original
research focus.
- Phenomenological research is about producing thick descriptions of people’s
experiences and perspectives within their natural settings.
- Often based upon small case studies giving rise to concerns about its generalizability
to other situations.
- Seeks the opinions and subjective accounts and interpretations of participants.
3. Analytical surveys emphasize:
- A deductive approach.
- The identification of the research population and drawing of a representative sample
from the population.
- Control of variables.
- The generation of both qualitative and quantitative data and generalizability of
results.
4. Action research
- Involves close collaboration between researcher and practitioners and places an
emphasis on promoting change within organizations such as offices, hospitals,
schools and prisons.
- Can be highly structured and involve use of experimental and control groups used to
test a hypothesis.
- Can also be quite unstructured and used inductively (and qualitatively).
5. Heuristic inquiry
- A process that begins with a question/problem which the researcher tries to
illuminate or find an answer to.
- A deep personal questioning of what it is they wish to research. Living, sleeping and
merging with the research question.
- Reviewing all the data from personal experiences to identify tacit meanings.
- Forming a creative synthesis, including ideas for and against a proposition.
SELECTING RESEARCH APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES
, Connecting the research elements
Start by considering epistemology. Your approach to research and research methods will be
influenced by whether you think it is possible to try to measure an objective truth
(positivism), or whether you think that the real world cannot be measured in this way
(interpretivism).
With research topic in mind, you will probably have a view as to whether you want to:
1. Measure and generalize to a larger population;
2. To seek ‘thick description’.
What is important, is that whatever philosophy, approach and methodology you adopt for
your research, you should be able to justify your mix in relation to your research philosophy
and research question(s).
Timeframes for research
- Short-term: cross-sectional where the data is collected at one point in time. They
often use a survey methodology.
- Longitudinal study: to study change and development over time.
Exploratory, descriptive, explanatory and interpretative studies
Studies can be classified by their research methodology, but also according to their purpose.
1. Exploratory
Exploratory studies seek to explore what is happening and to ask questions about it.
Useful when not enough is known about a phenomenon.
A search of the literature, talking to experts in the field and conducting focus group
interviews.
2. Descriptive
The purpose of a descriptive study is to provide a picture of a phenomenon as it
naturally occurs. One of the weaknesses of descriptive studies is that they cannot
explain why an event has occurred.
‘What’ questions.
