NATIONAL AND REGIONAL IDENTITIES
LECTURE 2: IS IDENTITY A USEFUL CONCEPT AND WHAT DO WE MEAN BY IT?
IDENTITY: DEFINITIONS
1. The state of having unique identifying characteristics held by no other person or thing: uniqueness.
For example: your passport
2. The state of being the same in nature, quality, etc.: sameness. For example: identical twins
3. The distinguishing character or personality of an individual or thing: individuality
4. The result of psychological identification of oneself as having a distinct character (my Dutch identity)
So, identity is both about a (perceived) objective state of ‘sameness’ and about subjective characteristics
expressing ‘sameness’ or ‘belonging’.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The identity of an individual person is ‘a dynamic process of self-categorization and social comparison
considering both the salience and centrality of values and attitudes and the potency of multiple sub-identities.
Keywords:
o Process: implies dynamics, a process of identification
o Social comparison: identity is construed by comparing with others
o Identity may consist of various sub-identities: implies pluriformity
As individuals we strive towards a continuous and integrated self-image or identity, they have to overcome
possibly conflicting sub-identities, in order to achieve a ‘superidentity’.
Example: a Dutch person of Turkish descent and with an Islamic background.
This may result in either:
1. A superordinate identity, in which the conflicting sub-identities are ‘ranked’ (‘first I am a Muslim, then
a Turk, and then a Dutchman’)
2. A super identity, when the conflicts between sub-identities are solved, minimalized, or justified (e.g.
Dutchman)
3. Compare so-called hyphenated identities (dual identity, often an ethno cultural and a legal one):
African-American, Mexican American
JENKINS
In his theory on Social Identity, Jenkins deals with the distinction between collective and individual identity and
their interaction. Both are intricately intertwined!
In the process of identification, both collective and individual identity play an equal part.
Two tensions:
a. Self-image → external image
b. Self-image → public image
EXTERNAL IMAGE
,Jenkins speaks of the tension between ‘what people think of us’ and ‘what we think about ourselves’.
This is true for both the individual and the collective: there is always a tension between the image an individual
or a group ascribes to himself/itself (internal) and the image the individual or group thinks is being ascribed to
him or to the group by outsiders (external). Example: a person can feel unhappy about a nickname given to
him/her, esp. when this does not match with his/her self-image.
The same for a group: when a group is ascribed certain characteristics that do not match with their self-image.
An individual or group will, consciously or unconsciously, respond to these supposedly ascribed characteristics.
Identity results from the tension between internal self-image and ascribed or external image.
This goes for a national identity as well. For example: Dutch as pot smoking, clog-wearing.
PUBLIC IMAGE
We identify with others, and others identity with us. This leads to a process of internalization of this image as a
results of the interaction between self-definition and external definition by outsiders.
Look at the way exchange students or expats tend to flock together in national groups.
LABELLING
Categorization of an individual or a group may be called labelling or stereotyping.
Labelling may lead to a change in the self-image and to adaption to the outside label or public image.
Example: Brabanders are often labelled as being impolite, extravert, and boorish. In everyday life, esp.
adolescent adapt to this label → they take pride in ‘boeren!’. Their self-image and public image merge.
,In short:
Identity is about:
1. Self-perception: how one sees oneself (self-image)
2. Ascription/assignment: how one is seen from outside (external image)
3. Presentation: how one presents oneself to the outside world (public image)
These processes of identification and the interaction of self-image and public image go on continuously, both
on an individual and a collective level, both within a group and outside. So identity is always dynamic.
What we can learn from this is that, from a psychological point of view, identity is
o The result of the ongoing tension between self-image and public image;
o Is always changing and adapting, in an ongoing process of self-identification;
o ‘Identity is a social process’
With regard to identity, there is the additional eternal human issue, of how to reconcile a sense of oneself or
individualism with the need for collective belonging and action.
A human wants to be autonomous but also part of a group. As a result, even in distinguishing ourselves and
trying to stand out we assume a shared habitus and outlook…
Example: clothing styles and social groups (Versluis & Uyttenbroek)
SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HISTORY
What about identity as a concept?
Main issue: identity in a constructivist or an essentialist sense:
o Constructivist: it constructs what it means to define (constructivism: by reflecting on our experiences,
we construct our own understanding of the world we consciously live in) → identity is not there, but is
constructed by using it.
o Essentialist: refers to the belief that people and/or phenomena have an underlying and unchanging
‘essence’ or kernel. → deep down, there is a unique core of essence of identity. → “je kan hem wel uit
het dorp halen maar het dorp niet uit hem”
, Reify (reification) = to consider or make (an abstract idea or concept) real or concrete; ‘thingifie’.
Identity can be defined and delineated (and thus be passed on or even taught).
IDENTIFICATION INSTEAD OF IDENTITY
Identity is very hard to study and analyse. Identity is the result of a process of identification.
POLITICAL SPHERE
Despite being a construction, it is a social reality.
It is the construction, negotiation, manipulation and affirmation of national and regional discourses that can
be researched, not the collective identities themselves.
Collective memory: a “selection of imprints left by events that affect the course of history for a group of people
and through which we recognize the power to present the common or shared memories (…)”. Collective
memory is important for national identity, as it helps construct the identity by allowing national groups to have
a common identity.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF N ATIONAL AND REGIONAL IDENTITIES
a) Distinct social identities of groups thrive when the actual with other groups are small. Example:
carnival in Limburg and Brabant. We want to show that we are different from them. ‘Otherness’
Bourdieu: ‘social identity lies in difference, and difference is asserted against what is closest, which
represents the greatest threat’.
Groups feel most threatened in their identity by similar groups. → Greece and Turkey ‘the quarrelling
twins’
b) Two classical models of national identities:
1. A nation is based on an ethnic idea of descent and a cultural community. (Germany) → ethnic and
differentialist, you either belong or not.
2. A nation is based on political ideals. (France) → more inclusionary, should allow for greater
tolerance of diversity.
c) What makes a national identity?
1. Cultural identity
2. Citizenship
3. Ius soli (having been born in the country)
4. Ius sanguinis (to have parents who hold citizenship)
LECTURE 2: IS IDENTITY A USEFUL CONCEPT AND WHAT DO WE MEAN BY IT?
IDENTITY: DEFINITIONS
1. The state of having unique identifying characteristics held by no other person or thing: uniqueness.
For example: your passport
2. The state of being the same in nature, quality, etc.: sameness. For example: identical twins
3. The distinguishing character or personality of an individual or thing: individuality
4. The result of psychological identification of oneself as having a distinct character (my Dutch identity)
So, identity is both about a (perceived) objective state of ‘sameness’ and about subjective characteristics
expressing ‘sameness’ or ‘belonging’.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The identity of an individual person is ‘a dynamic process of self-categorization and social comparison
considering both the salience and centrality of values and attitudes and the potency of multiple sub-identities.
Keywords:
o Process: implies dynamics, a process of identification
o Social comparison: identity is construed by comparing with others
o Identity may consist of various sub-identities: implies pluriformity
As individuals we strive towards a continuous and integrated self-image or identity, they have to overcome
possibly conflicting sub-identities, in order to achieve a ‘superidentity’.
Example: a Dutch person of Turkish descent and with an Islamic background.
This may result in either:
1. A superordinate identity, in which the conflicting sub-identities are ‘ranked’ (‘first I am a Muslim, then
a Turk, and then a Dutchman’)
2. A super identity, when the conflicts between sub-identities are solved, minimalized, or justified (e.g.
Dutchman)
3. Compare so-called hyphenated identities (dual identity, often an ethno cultural and a legal one):
African-American, Mexican American
JENKINS
In his theory on Social Identity, Jenkins deals with the distinction between collective and individual identity and
their interaction. Both are intricately intertwined!
In the process of identification, both collective and individual identity play an equal part.
Two tensions:
a. Self-image → external image
b. Self-image → public image
EXTERNAL IMAGE
,Jenkins speaks of the tension between ‘what people think of us’ and ‘what we think about ourselves’.
This is true for both the individual and the collective: there is always a tension between the image an individual
or a group ascribes to himself/itself (internal) and the image the individual or group thinks is being ascribed to
him or to the group by outsiders (external). Example: a person can feel unhappy about a nickname given to
him/her, esp. when this does not match with his/her self-image.
The same for a group: when a group is ascribed certain characteristics that do not match with their self-image.
An individual or group will, consciously or unconsciously, respond to these supposedly ascribed characteristics.
Identity results from the tension between internal self-image and ascribed or external image.
This goes for a national identity as well. For example: Dutch as pot smoking, clog-wearing.
PUBLIC IMAGE
We identify with others, and others identity with us. This leads to a process of internalization of this image as a
results of the interaction between self-definition and external definition by outsiders.
Look at the way exchange students or expats tend to flock together in national groups.
LABELLING
Categorization of an individual or a group may be called labelling or stereotyping.
Labelling may lead to a change in the self-image and to adaption to the outside label or public image.
Example: Brabanders are often labelled as being impolite, extravert, and boorish. In everyday life, esp.
adolescent adapt to this label → they take pride in ‘boeren!’. Their self-image and public image merge.
,In short:
Identity is about:
1. Self-perception: how one sees oneself (self-image)
2. Ascription/assignment: how one is seen from outside (external image)
3. Presentation: how one presents oneself to the outside world (public image)
These processes of identification and the interaction of self-image and public image go on continuously, both
on an individual and a collective level, both within a group and outside. So identity is always dynamic.
What we can learn from this is that, from a psychological point of view, identity is
o The result of the ongoing tension between self-image and public image;
o Is always changing and adapting, in an ongoing process of self-identification;
o ‘Identity is a social process’
With regard to identity, there is the additional eternal human issue, of how to reconcile a sense of oneself or
individualism with the need for collective belonging and action.
A human wants to be autonomous but also part of a group. As a result, even in distinguishing ourselves and
trying to stand out we assume a shared habitus and outlook…
Example: clothing styles and social groups (Versluis & Uyttenbroek)
SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HISTORY
What about identity as a concept?
Main issue: identity in a constructivist or an essentialist sense:
o Constructivist: it constructs what it means to define (constructivism: by reflecting on our experiences,
we construct our own understanding of the world we consciously live in) → identity is not there, but is
constructed by using it.
o Essentialist: refers to the belief that people and/or phenomena have an underlying and unchanging
‘essence’ or kernel. → deep down, there is a unique core of essence of identity. → “je kan hem wel uit
het dorp halen maar het dorp niet uit hem”
, Reify (reification) = to consider or make (an abstract idea or concept) real or concrete; ‘thingifie’.
Identity can be defined and delineated (and thus be passed on or even taught).
IDENTIFICATION INSTEAD OF IDENTITY
Identity is very hard to study and analyse. Identity is the result of a process of identification.
POLITICAL SPHERE
Despite being a construction, it is a social reality.
It is the construction, negotiation, manipulation and affirmation of national and regional discourses that can
be researched, not the collective identities themselves.
Collective memory: a “selection of imprints left by events that affect the course of history for a group of people
and through which we recognize the power to present the common or shared memories (…)”. Collective
memory is important for national identity, as it helps construct the identity by allowing national groups to have
a common identity.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF N ATIONAL AND REGIONAL IDENTITIES
a) Distinct social identities of groups thrive when the actual with other groups are small. Example:
carnival in Limburg and Brabant. We want to show that we are different from them. ‘Otherness’
Bourdieu: ‘social identity lies in difference, and difference is asserted against what is closest, which
represents the greatest threat’.
Groups feel most threatened in their identity by similar groups. → Greece and Turkey ‘the quarrelling
twins’
b) Two classical models of national identities:
1. A nation is based on an ethnic idea of descent and a cultural community. (Germany) → ethnic and
differentialist, you either belong or not.
2. A nation is based on political ideals. (France) → more inclusionary, should allow for greater
tolerance of diversity.
c) What makes a national identity?
1. Cultural identity
2. Citizenship
3. Ius soli (having been born in the country)
4. Ius sanguinis (to have parents who hold citizenship)
