Foundations of General Linguistics
General Questions about language
1. What are the functions of human language?
2. What does it involve to know a language?
3. How is language used/ misused in different contexts?
4. How is language structured?
5. How did language structured?
6. Is it still possible for new languages to develop?
7. Where in the brain is language found?
8. How do children acquire their first language?
9. How do people acquire a second/ further language?
10. Can animals learn (a) human language?
11. How do “animal languages” and human languages differ?
12. Which properties are shared by all human languages?
13. How do human languages differ from each other?
14. How do languages influence each other?
15. How and why do languages change?
16. Are there (still) “primitive” languages? (no- no such thing)
17. How do languages die?
Number of languages
Approx. 6000 – (7111)
Half of these will have died out by the end of the century.
1 language dies every 14 days.
5 largest languages:
English
Chinese Mandarin
Spanish
French
Arabic
, What are the functions of human language?
Communication
Process of linguistic communication
Sender Code Receiver
(e.g. speaker/ writer/ signer) Perceptible sounds/ writing/ signs (e.g. hearer/ reader/ viewer)
Imperceptible idea/ thought
Message model of communication.
- Language is the means or instrument :
A. Which makes encoding possible.
The “transfer”/ “packing” of imperceptible ideas/ thoughts into a perceptible code.
B. Which makes decoding possible.
The “unpacking” of imperceptible ideas/ thoughts from a perceptible code.
- Assumptions of the message mode:
Language is a mental system which is used to convey info through encoding and decoding
of meaning.
Container metaphor: linguistic expressions (words/ sentences) are like containers into
which info is packed (encoded) and which can be sent to someone else, and from which
the info can be unpacked (decoded) exactly as it was sent.
Within the message model, misunderstandings and communication breakdown can be due
to imperfect/ careless encoding or decoding.
Verbal communication has an informative function, made possible by encoding & decoding
of linguistic meaning.
- Language can be used to convey factual info. This function can be described as:
A. Representational:
describe things or states of affairs, report or record events.
- First problem with the message model
Besides the representational use of language, verbal communication has several other
functions- which cannot be accounted for within the message model.
- Second problem with the message model
Verbal communication involves more than the mere encoding/ decoding of linguistic
meaning.
o E.g. He is dead.
Who does he refer to?
What does speaker mean by dead? (like tired, actually dead…)
, How is the utterance intended to be understood?
Statement or fact?
Threat?
Reassurance?
Negative judgement ?
o Speakers/ writers normally “mean” more ( & sometimes something completely
different) than what their words and sentences “mean”
o Distinguish between linguistic meaning 7 speaker/ writer’s meaning. (what they intend
to communicate with their utterances.)
o To recover speaker’s intended meaning, the hearer has to make use of facts/ clues/
guidelines provided by the linguistic utterances used by the speaker & the context in
which they have been used.
(context: Linguistic context, physical context, social context)
Other communicative functions of language
B. Persuasive:
Persuade someone to think, believe, decide, accept something; try to influence someone’s
attitude towards something.
C. Instrumental/ performative
Use language not only to say something, but also to do something that can result in a new
situation; e.g. use formal/ceremonial language which brings about changes in reality.
D. Regulating
Regulate/ influence someone’s physical, non-linguistic behaviour.
E. Conceptual/ denotive
Form concepts/ mental representations of things. Thus making it possible to refer to (and
think about) such things.
F. Metalinguistic
Refer to and talk about elements of language itself.
G. Social/ phatic
Create, confirm or sever social relationships.
H. Expressive/ emotive
Express emotions, feelings, sensations or try influence those od someone else.
I. Aesthetic
Create linguistic things that others find beautiful, pleasing, thought provoking, interesting.
J. Ludic/ playful
Take part in amusing language games.
, K. Identifying/ personative
Express your identity (geographical origin, social group, ethnicity, age, gender….)
L. Questioning
Attempt to get info from someone. Typically by means of a question.
- Language can also be used non-commutatively, e.g. without intention to convey thoughts/
ideas/ info or feelings to someone else.
Non-communicative uses of language
A. Compulsion function
Language use that falls outside the control of the sender; usually found with people who
have a physiological or mental problems (e.g. senile or from stroke)
B. “Practice” function
Normally found in young children who are in the process of acquiring a language;
languages often form part of a game – used as a “plaything” (like a toy) in the process of
the child practicing their linguistic and social skills.
Knowledge of a language
Two main types of knowledge:
1. Knowledge of the structure of the language (grammatical knowledge)
2. Knowledge of the use of the language (pragmatic knowledge)
(1)Grammatical knowledge: 4 main components-
1. Knowledge of the speech sounds (phonetics) and sound system/ structure (Phonology) of the
language. (sound)
- Knowledge of a spoken language includes knowledge of the sperate speech sounds that occur
& of the permissible sound distribution patterns of that language.
- Besides knowledge of sperate sounds, the fluent speaker also has knowledge of the sound
structure/ system of a language.
- Sound structure thus includes:
Knowledge of sound combinations
Knowledge of sound processes.
Knowledge of stress (próduce- prodúce), intonation/ tone patterns (falling vs. rising)
- Sound structure is investigated through Phonology
Knowledge of phonology of a language enables the fluent speaker to make judgements
about the phonological well/ill-formedness of utterances.
General Questions about language
1. What are the functions of human language?
2. What does it involve to know a language?
3. How is language used/ misused in different contexts?
4. How is language structured?
5. How did language structured?
6. Is it still possible for new languages to develop?
7. Where in the brain is language found?
8. How do children acquire their first language?
9. How do people acquire a second/ further language?
10. Can animals learn (a) human language?
11. How do “animal languages” and human languages differ?
12. Which properties are shared by all human languages?
13. How do human languages differ from each other?
14. How do languages influence each other?
15. How and why do languages change?
16. Are there (still) “primitive” languages? (no- no such thing)
17. How do languages die?
Number of languages
Approx. 6000 – (7111)
Half of these will have died out by the end of the century.
1 language dies every 14 days.
5 largest languages:
English
Chinese Mandarin
Spanish
French
Arabic
, What are the functions of human language?
Communication
Process of linguistic communication
Sender Code Receiver
(e.g. speaker/ writer/ signer) Perceptible sounds/ writing/ signs (e.g. hearer/ reader/ viewer)
Imperceptible idea/ thought
Message model of communication.
- Language is the means or instrument :
A. Which makes encoding possible.
The “transfer”/ “packing” of imperceptible ideas/ thoughts into a perceptible code.
B. Which makes decoding possible.
The “unpacking” of imperceptible ideas/ thoughts from a perceptible code.
- Assumptions of the message mode:
Language is a mental system which is used to convey info through encoding and decoding
of meaning.
Container metaphor: linguistic expressions (words/ sentences) are like containers into
which info is packed (encoded) and which can be sent to someone else, and from which
the info can be unpacked (decoded) exactly as it was sent.
Within the message model, misunderstandings and communication breakdown can be due
to imperfect/ careless encoding or decoding.
Verbal communication has an informative function, made possible by encoding & decoding
of linguistic meaning.
- Language can be used to convey factual info. This function can be described as:
A. Representational:
describe things or states of affairs, report or record events.
- First problem with the message model
Besides the representational use of language, verbal communication has several other
functions- which cannot be accounted for within the message model.
- Second problem with the message model
Verbal communication involves more than the mere encoding/ decoding of linguistic
meaning.
o E.g. He is dead.
Who does he refer to?
What does speaker mean by dead? (like tired, actually dead…)
, How is the utterance intended to be understood?
Statement or fact?
Threat?
Reassurance?
Negative judgement ?
o Speakers/ writers normally “mean” more ( & sometimes something completely
different) than what their words and sentences “mean”
o Distinguish between linguistic meaning 7 speaker/ writer’s meaning. (what they intend
to communicate with their utterances.)
o To recover speaker’s intended meaning, the hearer has to make use of facts/ clues/
guidelines provided by the linguistic utterances used by the speaker & the context in
which they have been used.
(context: Linguistic context, physical context, social context)
Other communicative functions of language
B. Persuasive:
Persuade someone to think, believe, decide, accept something; try to influence someone’s
attitude towards something.
C. Instrumental/ performative
Use language not only to say something, but also to do something that can result in a new
situation; e.g. use formal/ceremonial language which brings about changes in reality.
D. Regulating
Regulate/ influence someone’s physical, non-linguistic behaviour.
E. Conceptual/ denotive
Form concepts/ mental representations of things. Thus making it possible to refer to (and
think about) such things.
F. Metalinguistic
Refer to and talk about elements of language itself.
G. Social/ phatic
Create, confirm or sever social relationships.
H. Expressive/ emotive
Express emotions, feelings, sensations or try influence those od someone else.
I. Aesthetic
Create linguistic things that others find beautiful, pleasing, thought provoking, interesting.
J. Ludic/ playful
Take part in amusing language games.
, K. Identifying/ personative
Express your identity (geographical origin, social group, ethnicity, age, gender….)
L. Questioning
Attempt to get info from someone. Typically by means of a question.
- Language can also be used non-commutatively, e.g. without intention to convey thoughts/
ideas/ info or feelings to someone else.
Non-communicative uses of language
A. Compulsion function
Language use that falls outside the control of the sender; usually found with people who
have a physiological or mental problems (e.g. senile or from stroke)
B. “Practice” function
Normally found in young children who are in the process of acquiring a language;
languages often form part of a game – used as a “plaything” (like a toy) in the process of
the child practicing their linguistic and social skills.
Knowledge of a language
Two main types of knowledge:
1. Knowledge of the structure of the language (grammatical knowledge)
2. Knowledge of the use of the language (pragmatic knowledge)
(1)Grammatical knowledge: 4 main components-
1. Knowledge of the speech sounds (phonetics) and sound system/ structure (Phonology) of the
language. (sound)
- Knowledge of a spoken language includes knowledge of the sperate speech sounds that occur
& of the permissible sound distribution patterns of that language.
- Besides knowledge of sperate sounds, the fluent speaker also has knowledge of the sound
structure/ system of a language.
- Sound structure thus includes:
Knowledge of sound combinations
Knowledge of sound processes.
Knowledge of stress (próduce- prodúce), intonation/ tone patterns (falling vs. rising)
- Sound structure is investigated through Phonology
Knowledge of phonology of a language enables the fluent speaker to make judgements
about the phonological well/ill-formedness of utterances.
