LES 1
Language Components and Subsystems
- Syntax: studies how constituents are arranged to form sentences, focusing on
sentence structure
- Semantics: examines meaning in a context-free manner
- Pragmatics: explores how language is used in context
- Phonetics and phonology: deal with sounds, including phonemes and
graphemes
Linguistic Representation
Language provides a way to represent the structure of the world and events
linguistically, reflecting non-linguistic concepts
Sentence Structure
- Simple clauses contain only one verb form
- Noun phrases include articles, qualifiers, and other elements associated with
nouns
- Constituents are groups of words functioning as a unit within a hierarchical
structure
Word Classes and Functions
- Nouns, adjectives, quantifiers, pronouns, and adverbs each play specific roles in
sentences
- Grammatical functions include subject, object, and others
Morphology and Word Formation
- Inflection: adds grammatical meaning to words (e.g., conjugation, aspect,
declension)
- Derivation: expands the lexicon by creating new words from existing ones
- Morphemes: can be free (stand-alone words) or bound (parts of words)
Syntax and Sentence Structure
- Word order in English determines grammatical functions (e.g, subject, direct
object)
- English evolved from a case system to a fixed word order system
- Case remnants still exist in English pronouns (nominative vs. accusative)
Language Evolution
English has moved from a case system (in Old English) to a system with fixed word order
to express grammatical functions, with case distinctions mainly preserved in pronouns
, LES 2
Linguistic Units and Structures
- Phonemes: have no meaning on their own but contribute to meaning when
changed
- Morphemes: possess inherent meaning
- Sentences: composed of constituents like clauses and phrases
o Complex/compound sentences contain 2 verbs
o Main clauses and sub-clauses: subordination vs. coordination
- Phrases: groups of words that belong together, named after their head
o Recursion: embedding a structure inside a structure of the same kind
- Predicates: verb + complements necessary to complete the sentence
Parts of Speech and Their Functions
- Nouns: refer to persons, things, abstract ideas (including reification)
- Verbs: refer to states or events (including actions)
o Transitive verbs take objects as complements
o Intransitive verbs take no obligatory objects/complements
- Adverbs: modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., hard, yesterday)
- Adjectives: modify nouns (predicative or attributive use)
- Prepositions: mark relations, form prepositional phrases with noun phrases
- Articles and determiners: specify the reference of noun phrases
Clauses and Phrases
- Relative clauses:
o Non-restrictive: add additional information to the antecedent
o Restrictive: provide defining information about the antecedent
- Phrase identification: through substitution with pro-forms (pronouns and verbs)
- Noun phrases (NP) and verb phrases (VP): basic building blocks of sentences
Syntactic Functions and Sentence Structure
- Subject: typically a noun phrase, determines verb number (concord)
- Predicate: finite verb form + complements (everything but the subject)
- Objects: special type of complement
- Passive voice: subject is not the agent, agent mention optional
- Simplest English sentence: combination of a noun phrase (subject) and a verb
phrase (predicate)
Additional Concepts
- Semantic roles: Agent (doer of action) and Patient (receiver of action)
- Indefinitie reference: use of “there” with indefinite noun phrases
Language Components and Subsystems
- Syntax: studies how constituents are arranged to form sentences, focusing on
sentence structure
- Semantics: examines meaning in a context-free manner
- Pragmatics: explores how language is used in context
- Phonetics and phonology: deal with sounds, including phonemes and
graphemes
Linguistic Representation
Language provides a way to represent the structure of the world and events
linguistically, reflecting non-linguistic concepts
Sentence Structure
- Simple clauses contain only one verb form
- Noun phrases include articles, qualifiers, and other elements associated with
nouns
- Constituents are groups of words functioning as a unit within a hierarchical
structure
Word Classes and Functions
- Nouns, adjectives, quantifiers, pronouns, and adverbs each play specific roles in
sentences
- Grammatical functions include subject, object, and others
Morphology and Word Formation
- Inflection: adds grammatical meaning to words (e.g., conjugation, aspect,
declension)
- Derivation: expands the lexicon by creating new words from existing ones
- Morphemes: can be free (stand-alone words) or bound (parts of words)
Syntax and Sentence Structure
- Word order in English determines grammatical functions (e.g, subject, direct
object)
- English evolved from a case system to a fixed word order system
- Case remnants still exist in English pronouns (nominative vs. accusative)
Language Evolution
English has moved from a case system (in Old English) to a system with fixed word order
to express grammatical functions, with case distinctions mainly preserved in pronouns
, LES 2
Linguistic Units and Structures
- Phonemes: have no meaning on their own but contribute to meaning when
changed
- Morphemes: possess inherent meaning
- Sentences: composed of constituents like clauses and phrases
o Complex/compound sentences contain 2 verbs
o Main clauses and sub-clauses: subordination vs. coordination
- Phrases: groups of words that belong together, named after their head
o Recursion: embedding a structure inside a structure of the same kind
- Predicates: verb + complements necessary to complete the sentence
Parts of Speech and Their Functions
- Nouns: refer to persons, things, abstract ideas (including reification)
- Verbs: refer to states or events (including actions)
o Transitive verbs take objects as complements
o Intransitive verbs take no obligatory objects/complements
- Adverbs: modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., hard, yesterday)
- Adjectives: modify nouns (predicative or attributive use)
- Prepositions: mark relations, form prepositional phrases with noun phrases
- Articles and determiners: specify the reference of noun phrases
Clauses and Phrases
- Relative clauses:
o Non-restrictive: add additional information to the antecedent
o Restrictive: provide defining information about the antecedent
- Phrase identification: through substitution with pro-forms (pronouns and verbs)
- Noun phrases (NP) and verb phrases (VP): basic building blocks of sentences
Syntactic Functions and Sentence Structure
- Subject: typically a noun phrase, determines verb number (concord)
- Predicate: finite verb form + complements (everything but the subject)
- Objects: special type of complement
- Passive voice: subject is not the agent, agent mention optional
- Simplest English sentence: combination of a noun phrase (subject) and a verb
phrase (predicate)
Additional Concepts
- Semantic roles: Agent (doer of action) and Patient (receiver of action)
- Indefinitie reference: use of “there” with indefinite noun phrases
