LING 115 FALL 2023 FINAL (UNITS 2, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11)
national language - Correct Answers -used to stimulate feelings of patriotism, represent
the nation, and unify the population
symbols: national anthem, national flag, holidays, achievements of the nation
official language - Correct Answers -OLs are established for pragmatic reasons - to help
people in their daily activities. OLs are not symbolic.
- OLs are specified for:
(a) area of life/activity (e.g. teaching in schools, use in government administration etc.)
(b) geographical area - either all of a country, or a sub-part - a state/province/region.
What type of nation usually has the same language as NL and OL? - Correct Answers -
nations with homogeneous populations like France, Japan, and Korea where 90% of the
population comes from one ethnic group
NL and OL in Paraguay - Correct Answers -Official Language: Spanish
National Language: Guarani
NL and OL in Tanzania - Correct Answers -Official Language(s): Swahili, English
National Language: Swahili
NL and OL in Singapore - Correct Answers -Official Languages: Malay, Mandarin,
Tamil, English
National Language: Malay
NL and OL in Democratic Republic of Congo - Correct Answers -- Official language:
French
- National language(s): Lingala, Tshiluba, Kikongo, Swahili
- having multiple NLs: attempt to recognize different groups in the population
two common patterns for how bilingualism is established - Correct Answers --
Simultaneous bilingualism: L1 and L2 are both acquired from an early age, often in the
home (e.g. mother and father speak different languages to their children)
- Consecutive bilingualism: L2 is acquired after L1, typically before teenage years, often
when children start school
,language planning - Correct Answers -effort to change the function and use of a
language in a particular society by formally assigning it a special status/ role (2)
Step 1 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 1: status planning
- give special roles to certain languages/varieties, selecting new NLs and OLs
Step 2 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 2: corpus planning
- further developing the languages selected in Step 1:
- develop vocabulary for use in all areas of life
- create dictionaries
- decide pronunciation and grammatical rules
- standardization
- decide how the language should be written
Step 3 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 3: Promotion of new NLs/OLs
- spread knowledge of NLs/ OLs
Ways of promotion:
- education for younger members of a population
- radio and television programming
- incentives for people who learn the new language
Step 4 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 4: winning acceptance
- encourage people to use and be proud of/have respect for the new NL/OL
- emphasize the practical value of a new NL/OL
- goal: make people naturally enthusiastic to use their NL/OL
unilingual national / official langauge policy - Correct Answers -choosing a single
language for both OL and NL
modern Japan as an example of successful unilingual langauge planning - Correct
Answers -Before modern times, no common form of Japanese
Step 1: in 1916, the government selected the variety spoken in Yamanote, Tokyo as the
model
Step 2: the variety is standardized
Step 3: it is spread through mass education and media
Step 4: widespread acceptance was won for the new NL
pro/con of multiple NLs - Correct Answers -- Advantage: avoids inter-ethnic/regional
discontent and conflict due to favoring a single NL
,- Disadvantage: weakens the potential unifying force of having a single NL
example of country with multiple NLs - Correct Answers -Democratic Republic of Congo
(OL: French, 4 NLs: Swahili, Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba)
What can be done if a new NL doesn't have a large vocabulary suited to modern life
(science, education, commerce, etc)? - Correct Answers -- Rapidly develop the NL with
new words and standardize the NL as quickly as possible
- Add another language as OL, either permanently or temporarily while NL is being
developed
pro/con of multiple OLs - Correct Answers -- advantage: all segments of a population
have equal linguistic advantages
- disadvantage: very expensive. All official materials have to be produced in multiple
languages
pro/con of no NL, only an OL - Correct Answers -- advantages: ethnically neutral, OL is
already standardized so doesn't need to be developed further
- disadvantages: no stimulation of national unity via a NL, the OL may have negative
colonial associations, learning non-indigenous may be hard
example : Nigeria (OL: English)
NL vs. OL - Correct Answers -- NLs: symbolic, representative, binding
- OLs: utilitarian, non-symbolic
- When a single language serves both NL and OL functions, it is called a national-official
language
Pakistan / Bangladesh: - Correct Answers -- Example of failure in language planning
- 2 parts to the country: West Pakistan (many languages, more powerful) and East
Pakistan (mostly Bengali)
- Political leaders in West Pakistan declare Urdu (associated with Islam) as the NL, and
also an OL along with English
- major advantages to Urdu speakers in gov jobs
- discontent and riot in West Pakistan, people of East Pakistan uupset when their
proposal for Bengali as the OL was rejected
- new language movement --> military conflict --> independence from West Pakistan,
creating the new country of Bangladesh
- showcases how wrong choice for language can cause countries to split apart
Sri Lanka - Correct Answers -- Example of failure in Official Language
- 1948: 2 major language groups: 75% Sinhala, 25% Tamil
- Tamils got better jobs in gov bc of English skills (more exposure to English because
more missionary activity in their area) → Sinhalese are dissatisfied
, - 1956: first post-independence elections, Freedom party's leader pledges to make
Sinhala the unique OL of Sri Lanka immediately, party wins
- Tamil books/films from India are banned, riots occur, hundreds die
- Leads to Civil war and terrorism
- Shows how language issues can lead to major problems in multi-ethnic nations if bad
decisions are made, giving unfair advantages to one group
Indonesia language planning - Correct Answers -Example of success selection and
promotion of an official language in a multi-ethnic state
- 1949: Indonesia gained independence and needed a OL
- language chosen for OL: Malay, developed as Indonesian
- 4 advantages of Indonesian:
1. Largely ethnically neutral, was mostly used as an L2 (second language) lingua
franca
2. had already been used in some schools and novels
3. an indigenous language of Indonesia
4. had some prestige due to independence movement
- The variety of Malay was named Indonesian
- standardized and vocab developed
- now widely used: it is an OL, not an NL, but satisfies 3 of the 4 NL functions (unifying,
prestige, and frame of reference), but not quite separatist (the fourth function)
4 functions NLs should fulfill - Correct Answers -- Unifying: unify the nation and offer
advantages to speakers that other languages don't
- Separatist: should distinguish its speakers from those of other nations
- Prestige: should be seen as a real language with high status
- Frame of reference: should provide a model of correctness = be well-standardized
India as an example of regional multilingualism - Correct Answers -- reorganized
provincial boundaries previously created by British colonial rule to match more naturally
with distribution of major Indian languages
- then, made these languages official within their respective states
- easier for much of the population to carry out activities relating to local gov offices
- having multiple regional OLs reduced likelihood of linguistic issues causing discontent
and leading to civil unrest
Singapore language planning - Correct Answers -- Example of a successful multilingual
OL policy
- 1958: self-government with a challenge to unite a very mixed population (75%
Chinese, 17% Malay, 6% South Asian, 2% other)
- Government promotes multicultural, multilingual society: linguistic pluralism and
milticulturalism
- OLs: Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English, NL: Malay- gov organized bilingual education
for everyone
- Government policy of multilingualism has helped create social stability in a mixed
population
8, 9, 10, 11)
national language - Correct Answers -used to stimulate feelings of patriotism, represent
the nation, and unify the population
symbols: national anthem, national flag, holidays, achievements of the nation
official language - Correct Answers -OLs are established for pragmatic reasons - to help
people in their daily activities. OLs are not symbolic.
- OLs are specified for:
(a) area of life/activity (e.g. teaching in schools, use in government administration etc.)
(b) geographical area - either all of a country, or a sub-part - a state/province/region.
What type of nation usually has the same language as NL and OL? - Correct Answers -
nations with homogeneous populations like France, Japan, and Korea where 90% of the
population comes from one ethnic group
NL and OL in Paraguay - Correct Answers -Official Language: Spanish
National Language: Guarani
NL and OL in Tanzania - Correct Answers -Official Language(s): Swahili, English
National Language: Swahili
NL and OL in Singapore - Correct Answers -Official Languages: Malay, Mandarin,
Tamil, English
National Language: Malay
NL and OL in Democratic Republic of Congo - Correct Answers -- Official language:
French
- National language(s): Lingala, Tshiluba, Kikongo, Swahili
- having multiple NLs: attempt to recognize different groups in the population
two common patterns for how bilingualism is established - Correct Answers --
Simultaneous bilingualism: L1 and L2 are both acquired from an early age, often in the
home (e.g. mother and father speak different languages to their children)
- Consecutive bilingualism: L2 is acquired after L1, typically before teenage years, often
when children start school
,language planning - Correct Answers -effort to change the function and use of a
language in a particular society by formally assigning it a special status/ role (2)
Step 1 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 1: status planning
- give special roles to certain languages/varieties, selecting new NLs and OLs
Step 2 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 2: corpus planning
- further developing the languages selected in Step 1:
- develop vocabulary for use in all areas of life
- create dictionaries
- decide pronunciation and grammatical rules
- standardization
- decide how the language should be written
Step 3 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 3: Promotion of new NLs/OLs
- spread knowledge of NLs/ OLs
Ways of promotion:
- education for younger members of a population
- radio and television programming
- incentives for people who learn the new language
Step 4 of language planning - Correct Answers -Step 4: winning acceptance
- encourage people to use and be proud of/have respect for the new NL/OL
- emphasize the practical value of a new NL/OL
- goal: make people naturally enthusiastic to use their NL/OL
unilingual national / official langauge policy - Correct Answers -choosing a single
language for both OL and NL
modern Japan as an example of successful unilingual langauge planning - Correct
Answers -Before modern times, no common form of Japanese
Step 1: in 1916, the government selected the variety spoken in Yamanote, Tokyo as the
model
Step 2: the variety is standardized
Step 3: it is spread through mass education and media
Step 4: widespread acceptance was won for the new NL
pro/con of multiple NLs - Correct Answers -- Advantage: avoids inter-ethnic/regional
discontent and conflict due to favoring a single NL
,- Disadvantage: weakens the potential unifying force of having a single NL
example of country with multiple NLs - Correct Answers -Democratic Republic of Congo
(OL: French, 4 NLs: Swahili, Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba)
What can be done if a new NL doesn't have a large vocabulary suited to modern life
(science, education, commerce, etc)? - Correct Answers -- Rapidly develop the NL with
new words and standardize the NL as quickly as possible
- Add another language as OL, either permanently or temporarily while NL is being
developed
pro/con of multiple OLs - Correct Answers -- advantage: all segments of a population
have equal linguistic advantages
- disadvantage: very expensive. All official materials have to be produced in multiple
languages
pro/con of no NL, only an OL - Correct Answers -- advantages: ethnically neutral, OL is
already standardized so doesn't need to be developed further
- disadvantages: no stimulation of national unity via a NL, the OL may have negative
colonial associations, learning non-indigenous may be hard
example : Nigeria (OL: English)
NL vs. OL - Correct Answers -- NLs: symbolic, representative, binding
- OLs: utilitarian, non-symbolic
- When a single language serves both NL and OL functions, it is called a national-official
language
Pakistan / Bangladesh: - Correct Answers -- Example of failure in language planning
- 2 parts to the country: West Pakistan (many languages, more powerful) and East
Pakistan (mostly Bengali)
- Political leaders in West Pakistan declare Urdu (associated with Islam) as the NL, and
also an OL along with English
- major advantages to Urdu speakers in gov jobs
- discontent and riot in West Pakistan, people of East Pakistan uupset when their
proposal for Bengali as the OL was rejected
- new language movement --> military conflict --> independence from West Pakistan,
creating the new country of Bangladesh
- showcases how wrong choice for language can cause countries to split apart
Sri Lanka - Correct Answers -- Example of failure in Official Language
- 1948: 2 major language groups: 75% Sinhala, 25% Tamil
- Tamils got better jobs in gov bc of English skills (more exposure to English because
more missionary activity in their area) → Sinhalese are dissatisfied
, - 1956: first post-independence elections, Freedom party's leader pledges to make
Sinhala the unique OL of Sri Lanka immediately, party wins
- Tamil books/films from India are banned, riots occur, hundreds die
- Leads to Civil war and terrorism
- Shows how language issues can lead to major problems in multi-ethnic nations if bad
decisions are made, giving unfair advantages to one group
Indonesia language planning - Correct Answers -Example of success selection and
promotion of an official language in a multi-ethnic state
- 1949: Indonesia gained independence and needed a OL
- language chosen for OL: Malay, developed as Indonesian
- 4 advantages of Indonesian:
1. Largely ethnically neutral, was mostly used as an L2 (second language) lingua
franca
2. had already been used in some schools and novels
3. an indigenous language of Indonesia
4. had some prestige due to independence movement
- The variety of Malay was named Indonesian
- standardized and vocab developed
- now widely used: it is an OL, not an NL, but satisfies 3 of the 4 NL functions (unifying,
prestige, and frame of reference), but not quite separatist (the fourth function)
4 functions NLs should fulfill - Correct Answers -- Unifying: unify the nation and offer
advantages to speakers that other languages don't
- Separatist: should distinguish its speakers from those of other nations
- Prestige: should be seen as a real language with high status
- Frame of reference: should provide a model of correctness = be well-standardized
India as an example of regional multilingualism - Correct Answers -- reorganized
provincial boundaries previously created by British colonial rule to match more naturally
with distribution of major Indian languages
- then, made these languages official within their respective states
- easier for much of the population to carry out activities relating to local gov offices
- having multiple regional OLs reduced likelihood of linguistic issues causing discontent
and leading to civil unrest
Singapore language planning - Correct Answers -- Example of a successful multilingual
OL policy
- 1958: self-government with a challenge to unite a very mixed population (75%
Chinese, 17% Malay, 6% South Asian, 2% other)
- Government promotes multicultural, multilingual society: linguistic pluralism and
milticulturalism
- OLs: Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English, NL: Malay- gov organized bilingual education
for everyone
- Government policy of multilingualism has helped create social stability in a mixed
population
