Philosophy of Science
PLS2607 – PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE | FINAL EXAM
QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS | VERIFIED
PHILOSOPHY | 2026/2027
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
1. The view that scientific knowledge originates in, and is justified by,
sensory experience is known as:
A. Empiricism
B. Rationalism
C. Scepticism
D. Idealism
A. Empiricism
Empiricists hold that knowledge is ultimately grounded in what we
observe through the senses.
2. The thesis that what an observer sees is shaped by the theories,
expectations and background knowledge they bring to the observation
is called:
A. The verification principle
B. The Duhem-Quine thesis
C. The problem of induction
D. The theory-dependence of observation
D. The theory-dependence of observation
Observation is not a passive recording; prior knowledge shapes what
observers notice and report.
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, Philosophy of Science
3. N.R. Hanson's example of Tycho Brahe and Kepler watching the sun
at dawn is used to show that:
A. Astronomy cannot be an empirical science
B. Two observers with different background theories may in a sense see
different things
C. Retinal images differ from person to person
D. Kepler's observations were less accurate than Tycho's
B. Two observers with different background theories may in a sense
see different things
Tycho saw a moving sun and Kepler a turning earth, illustrating that
seeing is shaped by theory.
4. According to Chalmers, which of the following is NOT part of the
common-sense view that science is derived from the facts?
A. Facts are directly given to careful observers via the senses
B. Facts are prior to and independent of theory
C. Facts are freely invented by scientists to suit their theories
D. Facts form a firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge
C. Facts are freely invented by scientists to suit their theories
The common-sense view treats facts as given and secure, not as
inventions of the scientist.
5. Observation statements in science are best described as:
A. Public statements formulated in the language of some theory
B. Statements entirely free of any conceptual framework
C. Infallible statements that never need revision
D. Private reports of inner sensations that cannot be shared
A. Public statements formulated in the language of some theory
Observation statements are public and presuppose concepts drawn from
some theoretical background.
Page 2 of 62
, Philosophy of Science
6. The well-known duck-rabbit figure is used in philosophy of science
to illustrate that:
A. Images contain more information than words
B. Perception is always deceptive
C. The same retinal image can give rise to different perceptual
experiences
D. Animals cannot be classified scientifically
C. The same retinal image can give rise to different perceptual
experiences
One drawing can be seen as a duck or a rabbit, so perception involves
more than the image on the retina.
7. If observation statements are fallible, it follows that:
A. The observational foundation of science is itself open to revision
B. All theories are equally good
C. Experiments are unnecessary
D. Science can make no progress at all
A. The observational foundation of science is itself open to revision
Fallible observations mean that even the evidential base of science can be
corrected later.
8. An experiment differs from passive observation mainly because it:
A. Can only be carried out by a single scientist
B. Avoids the use of any theory
C. Involves deliberate intervention to control and vary conditions
D. Never uses instruments
C. Involves deliberate intervention to control and vary conditions
Experimenters actively manipulate variables rather than simply watching
events unfold.
Page 3 of 62
, Philosophy of Science
9. The 'new experimentalism' associated with Ian Hacking and Deborah
Mayo emphasises that:
A. Only thought experiments produce knowledge
B. Experiments are always dictated by a single dominant theory
C. Experiments have no role in science
D. Experimental results can be established largely independently of high-
level theory
D. Experimental results can be established largely independently of
high-level theory
New experimentalists argue that experiment has a life of its own and can
yield secure results without settling grand theory.
10. Hacking's remark that 'if you can spray them, then they are real'
supports which position?
A. Entity realism
B. Logical positivism
C. Instrumentalism
D. Constructive empiricism
A. Entity realism
If we can manipulate electrons to produce effects, Hacking argues, we
have good reason to believe they exist.
11. Galileo's telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter were
contested by some contemporaries mainly because:
A. The reliability of the telescope as an instrument for celestial
observation was itself in question
B. Jupiter could not be seen with the naked eye
C. The observations supported the Ptolemaic system
D. Galileo refused to publish them
A. The reliability of the telescope as an instrument for celestial
observation was itself in question
Critics doubted that an instrument tested on earthly objects gave
trustworthy images of the heavens.
Page 4 of 62
PLS2607 – PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE | FINAL EXAM
QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS | VERIFIED
PHILOSOPHY | 2026/2027
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
1. The view that scientific knowledge originates in, and is justified by,
sensory experience is known as:
A. Empiricism
B. Rationalism
C. Scepticism
D. Idealism
A. Empiricism
Empiricists hold that knowledge is ultimately grounded in what we
observe through the senses.
2. The thesis that what an observer sees is shaped by the theories,
expectations and background knowledge they bring to the observation
is called:
A. The verification principle
B. The Duhem-Quine thesis
C. The problem of induction
D. The theory-dependence of observation
D. The theory-dependence of observation
Observation is not a passive recording; prior knowledge shapes what
observers notice and report.
Page 1 of 62
, Philosophy of Science
3. N.R. Hanson's example of Tycho Brahe and Kepler watching the sun
at dawn is used to show that:
A. Astronomy cannot be an empirical science
B. Two observers with different background theories may in a sense see
different things
C. Retinal images differ from person to person
D. Kepler's observations were less accurate than Tycho's
B. Two observers with different background theories may in a sense
see different things
Tycho saw a moving sun and Kepler a turning earth, illustrating that
seeing is shaped by theory.
4. According to Chalmers, which of the following is NOT part of the
common-sense view that science is derived from the facts?
A. Facts are directly given to careful observers via the senses
B. Facts are prior to and independent of theory
C. Facts are freely invented by scientists to suit their theories
D. Facts form a firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge
C. Facts are freely invented by scientists to suit their theories
The common-sense view treats facts as given and secure, not as
inventions of the scientist.
5. Observation statements in science are best described as:
A. Public statements formulated in the language of some theory
B. Statements entirely free of any conceptual framework
C. Infallible statements that never need revision
D. Private reports of inner sensations that cannot be shared
A. Public statements formulated in the language of some theory
Observation statements are public and presuppose concepts drawn from
some theoretical background.
Page 2 of 62
, Philosophy of Science
6. The well-known duck-rabbit figure is used in philosophy of science
to illustrate that:
A. Images contain more information than words
B. Perception is always deceptive
C. The same retinal image can give rise to different perceptual
experiences
D. Animals cannot be classified scientifically
C. The same retinal image can give rise to different perceptual
experiences
One drawing can be seen as a duck or a rabbit, so perception involves
more than the image on the retina.
7. If observation statements are fallible, it follows that:
A. The observational foundation of science is itself open to revision
B. All theories are equally good
C. Experiments are unnecessary
D. Science can make no progress at all
A. The observational foundation of science is itself open to revision
Fallible observations mean that even the evidential base of science can be
corrected later.
8. An experiment differs from passive observation mainly because it:
A. Can only be carried out by a single scientist
B. Avoids the use of any theory
C. Involves deliberate intervention to control and vary conditions
D. Never uses instruments
C. Involves deliberate intervention to control and vary conditions
Experimenters actively manipulate variables rather than simply watching
events unfold.
Page 3 of 62
, Philosophy of Science
9. The 'new experimentalism' associated with Ian Hacking and Deborah
Mayo emphasises that:
A. Only thought experiments produce knowledge
B. Experiments are always dictated by a single dominant theory
C. Experiments have no role in science
D. Experimental results can be established largely independently of high-
level theory
D. Experimental results can be established largely independently of
high-level theory
New experimentalists argue that experiment has a life of its own and can
yield secure results without settling grand theory.
10. Hacking's remark that 'if you can spray them, then they are real'
supports which position?
A. Entity realism
B. Logical positivism
C. Instrumentalism
D. Constructive empiricism
A. Entity realism
If we can manipulate electrons to produce effects, Hacking argues, we
have good reason to believe they exist.
11. Galileo's telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter were
contested by some contemporaries mainly because:
A. The reliability of the telescope as an instrument for celestial
observation was itself in question
B. Jupiter could not be seen with the naked eye
C. The observations supported the Ptolemaic system
D. Galileo refused to publish them
A. The reliability of the telescope as an instrument for celestial
observation was itself in question
Critics doubted that an instrument tested on earthly objects gave
trustworthy images of the heavens.
Page 4 of 62
