STUDY GUIDE FOR WJEC LEVEL 3 APPLIED DIPLOMA IN CRIMINOLOGY UNIT 1
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,TABLE OF CONTENTS
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology
UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
Complete Study Guide | Model Answers & Revision Notes | Updated 2026–2027
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 — Understand How Crime Reporting Affects Public Perceptions of
Criminality
AC 1.1 — Analyse Different Types of Crime
AC 1.2 — Explain the Reasons Why Certain Crimes Are Unreported
AC 1.3 — Explain the Consequences of Unreported Crime
AC 1.4 — Describe Media Representation of Crime
AC 1.5 — Explain the Impact of Media Representations on Public Perceptions of Crime
AC 1.6 — Evaluate Methods of Collecting Statistics About Crime
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 — Understand How Campaigns Are Used to Elicit Change
AC 2.1 — Compare Campaigns for Change
AC 2.2 — Evaluate the Effectiveness of Media Used in Campaigns for Change
LEARNING OUTCOME 3 — Plan Campaigns for Change Relating to Crime
AC 3.1 — Plan a Campaign for Change Relating to Crime
AC 3.2 — Design Materials for Use in Campaigning for Change
AC 3.3 — Justify a Campaign for Change
Unit 1 Coverage: 3 Learning Outcomes | 11 Assessment Criteria
Included Study Features: Detailed Revision Notes • Original Model Answers • Real-World Case Studies •
Campaign Examples • Comparison Tables • Exam Strategies • Practice Activities
STUDENT NOTE | These are original revision examples for study and practice. Adapt any campaign model to the
assessment brief issued by your centre; verify statistics and service contacts before use.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
AC 1.1 — Analyse Different Types of Crime
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Detailed Revision Notes & Original Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
Crime refers to behaviour that breaks the law and may result in punishment by the criminal justice system.
Different types of crime vary in their victims, offenders, motives, consequences and levels of reporting.
For AC 1.1, students should analyse different types of crime by considering their characteristics, typical offenders
and victims, reasons for offending, and whether they are likely to be reported.
1. Types of crime
Crime type Description Example
Non-violent offences commonly associated with financial or professional
White-collar crime Fraud, embezzlement
activity
Moral crime Offences associated with society's moral values Certain drug-related offences
State crime Illegal or harmful conduct committed by state officials or institutions Torture, unlawful detention
Technological
Crime involving computers, digital networks or technology Hacking, online fraud
crime
Individual crime Offences committed by individuals, sometimes against other individuals Assault, theft
Criminal offences motivated by hostility or prejudice towards protected
Hate crime Racially motivated assault
characteristics
Abuse or violence committed to defend perceived family or community Forced marriage, honour-based
Honour crime
honour violence
Abusive, controlling or violent behaviour within intimate or family
Domestic abuse Coercive control, physical abuse
relationships
2. Original Model Answer
AC 1.1 — Analyse Different Types of Crime
White-collar crime
White-collar crime involves offences such as fraud, embezzlement and financial deception. These offences may
be committed by individuals who occupy trusted professional or organisational positions. The motivation is often
financial gain, and victims can include businesses, customers, employees and members of the public.
For example, the Bernie Madoff investment fraud involved significant financial losses for investors. White-collar
crime can be difficult to detect because offenders may have access to financial systems and specialist knowledge.
Its consequences extend beyond monetary losses because it can damage public trust in institutions.
Moral crime
Moral crimes are offences associated with conduct considered unacceptable under particular legal and social
standards. Drug-related offences are one example, although the legal treatment of particular substances and
behaviours varies between jurisdictions.
One important characteristic is that social attitudes towards these behaviours may change over time. Some
offences are less visible because they occur privately or involve consenting participants. Consequently, reporting
and enforcement may depend heavily on police activity rather than complaints from identifiable victims.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,State crime
State crime refers to unlawful acts committed by governments, officials or state organisations. Examples include
torture, unlawful detention and serious human rights abuses.
State crime may involve individuals with political authority or control over public institutions. Victims can include
political opponents, minority groups and civilians. Investigating these offences can be especially difficult where
government institutions restrict access to information or prevent independent scrutiny.
Technological crime
Technological crime involves the use of digital devices, computer systems or online networks to commit offences.
Examples include hacking, identity theft, cyber-enabled fraud and unauthorised access to information.
Offenders may operate across national borders and conceal their identities using technology. Victims can include
individuals, businesses and public institutions. Technological crime can cause financial damage, privacy
violations and disruption to essential services.
The international nature of cybercrime may make identifying and prosecuting offenders difficult because different
legal systems and investigative agencies may be involved.
Individual crime
Individual crime includes offences such as theft, assault and criminal damage committed by individuals. Some
offences involve direct confrontation, while others occur without the victim being present.
Motives vary and may include financial need, anger, revenge or opportunity. Victims may suffer physical injury,
emotional distress or financial losses. Reporting levels can vary depending on the relationship between the
offender and victim, seriousness of the offence and confidence in the police.
Hate crime
Hate crime involves a criminal offence motivated wholly or partly by hostility or prejudice towards characteristics
such as race, religion, disability, sexual orientation or transgender identity.
These offences can include assault, harassment and criminal damage. Hate crime affects not only individual
victims but can create fear within wider communities sharing the targeted characteristic.
Victims may avoid reporting because they fear further victimisation or believe they will not be taken seriously.
Honour crime
Honour-based abuse involves harmful or criminal conduct justified by perpetrators as protecting or restoring
perceived family or community honour. It may involve threats, coercion, forced marriage or physical violence.
Victims may experience pressure from several family members, making it difficult to seek protection. Fear of
retaliation, social isolation and dependence on perpetrators can discourage reporting.
These offences can have long-term psychological and physical consequences.
Domestic abuse
Domestic abuse includes controlling, coercive, threatening, violent or abusive behaviour within qualifying intimate
or family relationships. It may involve physical, psychological, sexual, emotional or economic abuse.
Offenders often exploit personal relationships, dependence or unequal power. Victims may experience repeated
harm over extended periods.
Domestic abuse is frequently underreported because victims may fear retaliation, financial hardship, family
breakdown or not being believed.
Conclusion
Different types of crime vary considerably in their motives, victims, offenders and consequences.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,White-collar and technological crimes may involve financial gain and require specialist investigative methods.
State crime can involve the misuse of political authority, while hate crimes and honour-based abuse may be
connected to prejudice, control and perceived social expectations.
Domestic abuse and some moral offences may remain hidden because they occur privately or victims face
barriers to reporting.
Overall, understanding these differences helps explain why certain crimes are more visible than others and why
investigative responses, victim support and crime-prevention measures must be adapted to the circumstances.
Define and identify the different types of crime
Explain the characteristics of each crime type
Identify typical offenders and victims
Describe possible motives and consequences
Use relevant real-world examples
Analyse differences in visibility and reporting
Reach a clear comparative conclusion
Exam strategy: Analysis goes beyond describing a crime. Explain why its characteristics matter, how those
characteristics affect victims or reporting, and how it differs from other crime types.
UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
AC 1.2 — Explain the Reasons Why Certain Crimes Are Unreported
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Revision Notes & Original Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
Many crimes are never reported to the police, meaning they do not appear in police-recorded crime statistics. This
is known as the dark figure of crime.
For AC 1.2, students should explain the reasons why people do not report offences, including personal, social and
cultural reasons, as well as the nature of the crime itself.
1. Key reasons why crimes are unreported
Reason Explanation Example
Fear Victims fear retaliation or further harm Domestic abuse
Shame or embarrassment Victims feel humiliated or blame themselves Sexual offences
Lack of knowledge Victims do not recognise an offence or know how to report it Financial abuse
Lack of confidence in police Victims believe the police will not help Hate crime
Cultural reasons Community pressures discourage disclosure Honour-based abuse
Personal reasons Victims wish to avoid publicity, conflict or distress Family-related offences
Perceived triviality Victims consider the offence too minor to report Minor theft
Crime appears victimless There is no obvious complainant Certain drug offences
Relationship with the offender Victims depend on or know the perpetrator Domestic abuse
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
, Reason Explanation Example
Fear of consequences Reporting may expose the victim to other risks Exploitation or blackmail
2. Original Model Answer
Criminology Unit 1 — AC 1.2
Explain the Reasons Why Certain Crimes Are Unreported
Introduction
Not all crimes committed in society are reported to the police. Unreported offences contribute to the dark figure of
crime, which refers to criminal activity that is absent from official police-recorded crime statistics.
People may decide not to report offences because of fear, shame, lack of knowledge, cultural expectations,
distrust of the police or their relationship with the offender. The reasons vary depending on the type of crime and
the circumstances of the victim.
1. Fear of Retaliation
Fear is a major reason why certain crimes are unreported. Victims may believe that reporting an offence will lead to
further violence, threats, intimidation or harassment.
This is particularly common in domestic abuse cases where the offender may exercise control over the victim.
For example, a victim experiencing physical violence from a partner may avoid contacting the police because they
fear the offender will become more aggressive if the abuse is reported.
Victims of gang-related crime may also remain silent because they fear retaliation from gang members.
Therefore, fear can prevent victims from seeking assistance even when the offence is serious.
2. Shame and Embarrassment
Some victims do not report crimes because they feel ashamed, embarrassed or concerned about how others will
judge them.
Sexual offences are particularly associated with these barriers. Victims may fear being blamed, disbelieved or
questioned about their behaviour.
For example, a victim of sexual assault may avoid reporting because they worry about personal information
becoming public or having to discuss the experience repeatedly.
Victims of online scams may also feel embarrassed about being deceived and therefore avoid reporting financial
losses.
Consequently, feelings of humiliation and anticipated social judgement can prevent offences from reaching official
crime statistics.
3. Lack of Knowledge
Some individuals do not report criminal behaviour because they do not realise that an offence has occurred.
This may happen when criminal behaviour is normalised within a relationship, family or workplace.
For example, a person experiencing coercive control may initially interpret repeated monitoring, isolation and
financial restrictions as ordinary relationship problems rather than potentially criminal behaviour.
Similarly, victims of certain forms of financial exploitation may not recognise that they have been defrauded.
Lack of awareness can therefore prevent reporting because individuals may not understand their legal rights or
available sources of support.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,4. Lack of Confidence in the Police
Victims may avoid reporting crimes because they believe the police will not take their complaint seriously or will be
unable to protect them.
Negative previous experiences, perceived discrimination or concerns about police effectiveness can contribute to
this lack of trust.
For example, a victim of repeated hate-related harassment may decide not to report further incidents if previous
complaints appeared to produce no meaningful response.
Some victims may also fear that reporting will expose them to additional scrutiny.
Therefore, confidence in the criminal justice system can strongly influence whether individuals report offences.
5. Cultural Reasons
Cultural expectations and community pressures may discourage victims from disclosing certain offences.
Some victims fear bringing perceived shame upon their families or damaging relationships within their
communities.
Honour-based abuse provides an example. A victim may face pressure to remain silent because relatives claim
that reporting abuse would damage family reputation.
In some situations, victims may also fear exclusion from their community or retaliation from several perpetrators.
However, these pressures are not characteristics of any single culture or religion. They arise from particular
abusive beliefs, power relationships and social expectations.
Cultural and community pressures may therefore make it difficult for victims to seek outside assistance.
6. Personal Reasons
Some victims choose not to report offences because they wish to avoid emotional distress, publicity or
involvement in criminal proceedings.
Reporting may involve police interviews, giving statements, attending court and discussing upsetting experiences.
For example, a victim who knows the offender personally may not wish to cause conflict within their family.
Others may be concerned about employment, housing or financial consequences.
These personal circumstances can lead individuals to remain silent even when they recognise that a crime has
occurred.
7. Perceived Triviality
Certain offences are not reported because victims consider them too minor to justify contacting the police.
For example, someone whose inexpensive property is stolen may believe that reporting the incident would take
more time and effort than replacing the item.
Minor criminal damage, attempted theft or low-value losses may also go unreported.
However, repeated incidents can collectively have significant consequences for individuals and communities.
Perceived triviality therefore contributes to the underrepresentation of some offences in police-recorded statistics.
8. Crimes Without an Obvious Victim
Some offences are less likely to be reported because there is no immediately identifiable person who considers
themselves a victim.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,Examples can include certain offences involving prohibited drugs or other activities conducted privately between
consenting adults.
Where nobody involved wishes to contact the police, offences may come to official attention mainly through police
investigations or proactive enforcement.
As a result, recorded levels of these crimes can be influenced heavily by policing priorities and enforcement
activity.
9. Relationship With the Offender
Victims may be reluctant to report offences when they have a close personal, emotional or financial relationship
with the perpetrator.
This is particularly relevant to domestic abuse, child abuse and financial exploitation by relatives.
For example, a victim may depend on an abusive partner for housing, childcare or financial support.
Reporting the offender may create concerns about losing these resources or separating family members.
Consequently, personal relationships and dependence can create significant barriers to reporting.
10. Fear of Further Consequences
Some victims fear that reporting an offence will expose them to additional risks, even when these risks are
separate from retaliation by the offender.
For example, a person subjected to blackmail may fear that private information will be disclosed if they report the
offence.
Victims of exploitation may also worry about immigration consequences, employment problems or being treated
as offenders themselves.
These concerns can make silence appear safer than approaching the authorities.
Therefore, perceived consequences of reporting can be especially important in crimes involving coercion or
exploitation.
Conclusion
There are several reasons why crimes go unreported, including fear, shame, lack of knowledge, distrust of the
police, cultural pressure, personal circumstances and relationships with offenders.
Different crimes may be affected by different barriers. Domestic abuse can remain hidden because of fear and
dependence, sexual offences may be underreported because of trauma and anticipated judgement, and minor
theft may go unreported because victims consider it insignificant.
These factors contribute to the dark figure of crime and mean that police-recorded statistics do not provide a
complete picture of criminal activity.
Understanding why offences go unreported is important because it helps explain differences between actual crime
levels and officially recorded crime and highlights the need for accessible reporting systems and effective victim
support.
3. Quick Revision: Match the Crime to the Reporting Barrier
Crime Possible reporting barriers
Domestic abuse Fear, financial dependence, emotional attachment
Sexual offences Shame, trauma, fear of disbelief
Hate crime Distrust of authorities, fear of further hostility
Honour-based abuse Family pressure, threats, social isolation
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
, Crime Possible reporting barriers
White-collar crime Lack of awareness, complexity, delayed discovery
Cybercrime Embarrassment, uncertainty about reporting
Minor theft Perceived triviality, inconvenience
Drug offences No obvious complainant, fear of self-incrimination
4. Self-Test
1. What does the dark figure of crime refer to?
Only crimes reported in newspapers
Crimes not reflected in official police-recorded statistics
Crimes resulting in imprisonment
2. Why might domestic abuse remain unreported?
Victims may fear retaliation or depend on the offender
Domestic abuse cannot be reported to police
Domestic abuse always occurs in public
3. Why are some minor offences not reported?
They cannot legally be investigated
Every minor offence is automatically recorded
Victims may consider reporting not worth the effort
UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
AC 1.3 — Explain the Consequences of Unreported Crime
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Revision Notes & Original Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
Unreported crime occurs when an offence is not brought to the attention of the police. These offences contribute
to the dark figure of crime, meaning criminal activity that is not reflected in police-recorded crime statistics.
Unreported crime can have serious consequences for victims, offenders, communities and the criminal justice
system. It can also affect the accuracy of crime statistics and decisions about public funding.
1. Main consequences of unreported crime
Consequence Explanation Example
Domestic abuse affecting children and
Ripple effect Harm spreads beyond the immediate victim
families
Cultural Silence and social pressures may allow harmful practices to
Honour-based abuse
consequences continue
Persistent non-enforcement and changing attitudes may contribute Historical changes in laws concerning
Decriminalisation
to debate about removing criminal penalties consensual same-sex activity
Police prioritisation Underreporting makes some crime problems less visible Hate crime in a community
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,Consequence Explanation Example
Unrecorded crime Official statistics underestimate some offences Sexual offences
Lack of justice Offenders may avoid investigation and prosecution Financial fraud
Continued
Offenders may repeat abuse or exploitation Coercive control
victimisation
Services may receive insufficient funding because demand is
Resource allocation Specialist victim-support services
underestimated
2. Original Model Answer
CRIMINOLOGY UNIT 1 — AC 1.3
Explain the Consequences of Unreported Crime
Introduction
Unreported crime refers to offences that are not reported to the police. These offences form part of the dark figure
of crime and are often absent from official police-recorded crime statistics.
When crimes remain unreported, the consequences can affect individuals, communities and the wider criminal
justice system. Important consequences include the ripple effect, cultural consequences, possible changes in
criminalisation, police prioritisation and the continued existence of unrecorded crime.
1. The Ripple Effect
The ripple effect occurs when the consequences of a crime extend beyond the immediate victim and affect other
people, such as family members, friends and the wider community.
For example, when domestic abuse remains unreported, the victim may continue experiencing physical injuries,
anxiety, depression or financial insecurity. Children living in the household may also experience fear, emotional
distress or disruption to their education.
Family members and friends may become distressed when they notice changes in the victim's behaviour but do
not understand what is happening.
If the offender is not investigated, the abuse may continue or escalate, creating further harm.
Therefore, unreported crime can produce lasting consequences for several people rather than affecting only the
original victim.
2. Cultural Consequences
Unreported crime can reinforce harmful social expectations, particularly when victims feel pressured to remain
silent.
For example, honour-based abuse may go unreported when perpetrators use threats, family pressure or social
exclusion to discourage victims from seeking help.
When victims cannot access protection, abusive behaviour may continue within particular families or social
networks.
The absence of reports may also create the misleading impression that these offences rarely occur, reducing
public awareness and the availability of appropriate support.
However, it is important not to assume that abuse is characteristic of an entire culture or religion. Criminal
behaviour is the responsibility of offenders, and harmful practices can be challenged within communities.
Consequently, unreported crime may allow abusive power relationships and harmful expectations to persist.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,TABLE OF CONTENTS
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology
UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
Complete Study Guide | Model Answers & Revision Notes | Updated 2026–2027
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 — Understand How Crime Reporting Affects Public Perceptions of
Criminality
AC 1.1 — Analyse Different Types of Crime
AC 1.2 — Explain the Reasons Why Certain Crimes Are Unreported
AC 1.3 — Explain the Consequences of Unreported Crime
AC 1.4 — Describe Media Representation of Crime
AC 1.5 — Explain the Impact of Media Representations on Public Perceptions of Crime
AC 1.6 — Evaluate Methods of Collecting Statistics About Crime
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 — Understand How Campaigns Are Used to Elicit Change
AC 2.1 — Compare Campaigns for Change
AC 2.2 — Evaluate the Effectiveness of Media Used in Campaigns for Change
LEARNING OUTCOME 3 — Plan Campaigns for Change Relating to Crime
AC 3.1 — Plan a Campaign for Change Relating to Crime
AC 3.2 — Design Materials for Use in Campaigning for Change
AC 3.3 — Justify a Campaign for Change
Unit 1 Coverage: 3 Learning Outcomes | 11 Assessment Criteria
Included Study Features: Detailed Revision Notes • Original Model Answers • Real-World Case Studies •
Campaign Examples • Comparison Tables • Exam Strategies • Practice Activities
STUDENT NOTE | These are original revision examples for study and practice. Adapt any campaign model to the
assessment brief issued by your centre; verify statistics and service contacts before use.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
AC 1.1 — Analyse Different Types of Crime
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Detailed Revision Notes & Original Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
Crime refers to behaviour that breaks the law and may result in punishment by the criminal justice system.
Different types of crime vary in their victims, offenders, motives, consequences and levels of reporting.
For AC 1.1, students should analyse different types of crime by considering their characteristics, typical offenders
and victims, reasons for offending, and whether they are likely to be reported.
1. Types of crime
Crime type Description Example
Non-violent offences commonly associated with financial or professional
White-collar crime Fraud, embezzlement
activity
Moral crime Offences associated with society's moral values Certain drug-related offences
State crime Illegal or harmful conduct committed by state officials or institutions Torture, unlawful detention
Technological
Crime involving computers, digital networks or technology Hacking, online fraud
crime
Individual crime Offences committed by individuals, sometimes against other individuals Assault, theft
Criminal offences motivated by hostility or prejudice towards protected
Hate crime Racially motivated assault
characteristics
Abuse or violence committed to defend perceived family or community Forced marriage, honour-based
Honour crime
honour violence
Abusive, controlling or violent behaviour within intimate or family
Domestic abuse Coercive control, physical abuse
relationships
2. Original Model Answer
AC 1.1 — Analyse Different Types of Crime
White-collar crime
White-collar crime involves offences such as fraud, embezzlement and financial deception. These offences may
be committed by individuals who occupy trusted professional or organisational positions. The motivation is often
financial gain, and victims can include businesses, customers, employees and members of the public.
For example, the Bernie Madoff investment fraud involved significant financial losses for investors. White-collar
crime can be difficult to detect because offenders may have access to financial systems and specialist knowledge.
Its consequences extend beyond monetary losses because it can damage public trust in institutions.
Moral crime
Moral crimes are offences associated with conduct considered unacceptable under particular legal and social
standards. Drug-related offences are one example, although the legal treatment of particular substances and
behaviours varies between jurisdictions.
One important characteristic is that social attitudes towards these behaviours may change over time. Some
offences are less visible because they occur privately or involve consenting participants. Consequently, reporting
and enforcement may depend heavily on police activity rather than complaints from identifiable victims.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,State crime
State crime refers to unlawful acts committed by governments, officials or state organisations. Examples include
torture, unlawful detention and serious human rights abuses.
State crime may involve individuals with political authority or control over public institutions. Victims can include
political opponents, minority groups and civilians. Investigating these offences can be especially difficult where
government institutions restrict access to information or prevent independent scrutiny.
Technological crime
Technological crime involves the use of digital devices, computer systems or online networks to commit offences.
Examples include hacking, identity theft, cyber-enabled fraud and unauthorised access to information.
Offenders may operate across national borders and conceal their identities using technology. Victims can include
individuals, businesses and public institutions. Technological crime can cause financial damage, privacy
violations and disruption to essential services.
The international nature of cybercrime may make identifying and prosecuting offenders difficult because different
legal systems and investigative agencies may be involved.
Individual crime
Individual crime includes offences such as theft, assault and criminal damage committed by individuals. Some
offences involve direct confrontation, while others occur without the victim being present.
Motives vary and may include financial need, anger, revenge or opportunity. Victims may suffer physical injury,
emotional distress or financial losses. Reporting levels can vary depending on the relationship between the
offender and victim, seriousness of the offence and confidence in the police.
Hate crime
Hate crime involves a criminal offence motivated wholly or partly by hostility or prejudice towards characteristics
such as race, religion, disability, sexual orientation or transgender identity.
These offences can include assault, harassment and criminal damage. Hate crime affects not only individual
victims but can create fear within wider communities sharing the targeted characteristic.
Victims may avoid reporting because they fear further victimisation or believe they will not be taken seriously.
Honour crime
Honour-based abuse involves harmful or criminal conduct justified by perpetrators as protecting or restoring
perceived family or community honour. It may involve threats, coercion, forced marriage or physical violence.
Victims may experience pressure from several family members, making it difficult to seek protection. Fear of
retaliation, social isolation and dependence on perpetrators can discourage reporting.
These offences can have long-term psychological and physical consequences.
Domestic abuse
Domestic abuse includes controlling, coercive, threatening, violent or abusive behaviour within qualifying intimate
or family relationships. It may involve physical, psychological, sexual, emotional or economic abuse.
Offenders often exploit personal relationships, dependence or unequal power. Victims may experience repeated
harm over extended periods.
Domestic abuse is frequently underreported because victims may fear retaliation, financial hardship, family
breakdown or not being believed.
Conclusion
Different types of crime vary considerably in their motives, victims, offenders and consequences.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,White-collar and technological crimes may involve financial gain and require specialist investigative methods.
State crime can involve the misuse of political authority, while hate crimes and honour-based abuse may be
connected to prejudice, control and perceived social expectations.
Domestic abuse and some moral offences may remain hidden because they occur privately or victims face
barriers to reporting.
Overall, understanding these differences helps explain why certain crimes are more visible than others and why
investigative responses, victim support and crime-prevention measures must be adapted to the circumstances.
Define and identify the different types of crime
Explain the characteristics of each crime type
Identify typical offenders and victims
Describe possible motives and consequences
Use relevant real-world examples
Analyse differences in visibility and reporting
Reach a clear comparative conclusion
Exam strategy: Analysis goes beyond describing a crime. Explain why its characteristics matter, how those
characteristics affect victims or reporting, and how it differs from other crime types.
UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
AC 1.2 — Explain the Reasons Why Certain Crimes Are Unreported
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Revision Notes & Original Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
Many crimes are never reported to the police, meaning they do not appear in police-recorded crime statistics. This
is known as the dark figure of crime.
For AC 1.2, students should explain the reasons why people do not report offences, including personal, social and
cultural reasons, as well as the nature of the crime itself.
1. Key reasons why crimes are unreported
Reason Explanation Example
Fear Victims fear retaliation or further harm Domestic abuse
Shame or embarrassment Victims feel humiliated or blame themselves Sexual offences
Lack of knowledge Victims do not recognise an offence or know how to report it Financial abuse
Lack of confidence in police Victims believe the police will not help Hate crime
Cultural reasons Community pressures discourage disclosure Honour-based abuse
Personal reasons Victims wish to avoid publicity, conflict or distress Family-related offences
Perceived triviality Victims consider the offence too minor to report Minor theft
Crime appears victimless There is no obvious complainant Certain drug offences
Relationship with the offender Victims depend on or know the perpetrator Domestic abuse
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
, Reason Explanation Example
Fear of consequences Reporting may expose the victim to other risks Exploitation or blackmail
2. Original Model Answer
Criminology Unit 1 — AC 1.2
Explain the Reasons Why Certain Crimes Are Unreported
Introduction
Not all crimes committed in society are reported to the police. Unreported offences contribute to the dark figure of
crime, which refers to criminal activity that is absent from official police-recorded crime statistics.
People may decide not to report offences because of fear, shame, lack of knowledge, cultural expectations,
distrust of the police or their relationship with the offender. The reasons vary depending on the type of crime and
the circumstances of the victim.
1. Fear of Retaliation
Fear is a major reason why certain crimes are unreported. Victims may believe that reporting an offence will lead to
further violence, threats, intimidation or harassment.
This is particularly common in domestic abuse cases where the offender may exercise control over the victim.
For example, a victim experiencing physical violence from a partner may avoid contacting the police because they
fear the offender will become more aggressive if the abuse is reported.
Victims of gang-related crime may also remain silent because they fear retaliation from gang members.
Therefore, fear can prevent victims from seeking assistance even when the offence is serious.
2. Shame and Embarrassment
Some victims do not report crimes because they feel ashamed, embarrassed or concerned about how others will
judge them.
Sexual offences are particularly associated with these barriers. Victims may fear being blamed, disbelieved or
questioned about their behaviour.
For example, a victim of sexual assault may avoid reporting because they worry about personal information
becoming public or having to discuss the experience repeatedly.
Victims of online scams may also feel embarrassed about being deceived and therefore avoid reporting financial
losses.
Consequently, feelings of humiliation and anticipated social judgement can prevent offences from reaching official
crime statistics.
3. Lack of Knowledge
Some individuals do not report criminal behaviour because they do not realise that an offence has occurred.
This may happen when criminal behaviour is normalised within a relationship, family or workplace.
For example, a person experiencing coercive control may initially interpret repeated monitoring, isolation and
financial restrictions as ordinary relationship problems rather than potentially criminal behaviour.
Similarly, victims of certain forms of financial exploitation may not recognise that they have been defrauded.
Lack of awareness can therefore prevent reporting because individuals may not understand their legal rights or
available sources of support.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,4. Lack of Confidence in the Police
Victims may avoid reporting crimes because they believe the police will not take their complaint seriously or will be
unable to protect them.
Negative previous experiences, perceived discrimination or concerns about police effectiveness can contribute to
this lack of trust.
For example, a victim of repeated hate-related harassment may decide not to report further incidents if previous
complaints appeared to produce no meaningful response.
Some victims may also fear that reporting will expose them to additional scrutiny.
Therefore, confidence in the criminal justice system can strongly influence whether individuals report offences.
5. Cultural Reasons
Cultural expectations and community pressures may discourage victims from disclosing certain offences.
Some victims fear bringing perceived shame upon their families or damaging relationships within their
communities.
Honour-based abuse provides an example. A victim may face pressure to remain silent because relatives claim
that reporting abuse would damage family reputation.
In some situations, victims may also fear exclusion from their community or retaliation from several perpetrators.
However, these pressures are not characteristics of any single culture or religion. They arise from particular
abusive beliefs, power relationships and social expectations.
Cultural and community pressures may therefore make it difficult for victims to seek outside assistance.
6. Personal Reasons
Some victims choose not to report offences because they wish to avoid emotional distress, publicity or
involvement in criminal proceedings.
Reporting may involve police interviews, giving statements, attending court and discussing upsetting experiences.
For example, a victim who knows the offender personally may not wish to cause conflict within their family.
Others may be concerned about employment, housing or financial consequences.
These personal circumstances can lead individuals to remain silent even when they recognise that a crime has
occurred.
7. Perceived Triviality
Certain offences are not reported because victims consider them too minor to justify contacting the police.
For example, someone whose inexpensive property is stolen may believe that reporting the incident would take
more time and effort than replacing the item.
Minor criminal damage, attempted theft or low-value losses may also go unreported.
However, repeated incidents can collectively have significant consequences for individuals and communities.
Perceived triviality therefore contributes to the underrepresentation of some offences in police-recorded statistics.
8. Crimes Without an Obvious Victim
Some offences are less likely to be reported because there is no immediately identifiable person who considers
themselves a victim.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,Examples can include certain offences involving prohibited drugs or other activities conducted privately between
consenting adults.
Where nobody involved wishes to contact the police, offences may come to official attention mainly through police
investigations or proactive enforcement.
As a result, recorded levels of these crimes can be influenced heavily by policing priorities and enforcement
activity.
9. Relationship With the Offender
Victims may be reluctant to report offences when they have a close personal, emotional or financial relationship
with the perpetrator.
This is particularly relevant to domestic abuse, child abuse and financial exploitation by relatives.
For example, a victim may depend on an abusive partner for housing, childcare or financial support.
Reporting the offender may create concerns about losing these resources or separating family members.
Consequently, personal relationships and dependence can create significant barriers to reporting.
10. Fear of Further Consequences
Some victims fear that reporting an offence will expose them to additional risks, even when these risks are
separate from retaliation by the offender.
For example, a person subjected to blackmail may fear that private information will be disclosed if they report the
offence.
Victims of exploitation may also worry about immigration consequences, employment problems or being treated
as offenders themselves.
These concerns can make silence appear safer than approaching the authorities.
Therefore, perceived consequences of reporting can be especially important in crimes involving coercion or
exploitation.
Conclusion
There are several reasons why crimes go unreported, including fear, shame, lack of knowledge, distrust of the
police, cultural pressure, personal circumstances and relationships with offenders.
Different crimes may be affected by different barriers. Domestic abuse can remain hidden because of fear and
dependence, sexual offences may be underreported because of trauma and anticipated judgement, and minor
theft may go unreported because victims consider it insignificant.
These factors contribute to the dark figure of crime and mean that police-recorded statistics do not provide a
complete picture of criminal activity.
Understanding why offences go unreported is important because it helps explain differences between actual crime
levels and officially recorded crime and highlights the need for accessible reporting systems and effective victim
support.
3. Quick Revision: Match the Crime to the Reporting Barrier
Crime Possible reporting barriers
Domestic abuse Fear, financial dependence, emotional attachment
Sexual offences Shame, trauma, fear of disbelief
Hate crime Distrust of authorities, fear of further hostility
Honour-based abuse Family pressure, threats, social isolation
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
, Crime Possible reporting barriers
White-collar crime Lack of awareness, complexity, delayed discovery
Cybercrime Embarrassment, uncertainty about reporting
Minor theft Perceived triviality, inconvenience
Drug offences No obvious complainant, fear of self-incrimination
4. Self-Test
1. What does the dark figure of crime refer to?
Only crimes reported in newspapers
Crimes not reflected in official police-recorded statistics
Crimes resulting in imprisonment
2. Why might domestic abuse remain unreported?
Victims may fear retaliation or depend on the offender
Domestic abuse cannot be reported to police
Domestic abuse always occurs in public
3. Why are some minor offences not reported?
They cannot legally be investigated
Every minor offence is automatically recorded
Victims may consider reporting not worth the effort
UNIT 1 — Changing Awareness of Crime
AC 1.3 — Explain the Consequences of Unreported Crime
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Revision Notes & Original Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
Unreported crime occurs when an offence is not brought to the attention of the police. These offences contribute
to the dark figure of crime, meaning criminal activity that is not reflected in police-recorded crime statistics.
Unreported crime can have serious consequences for victims, offenders, communities and the criminal justice
system. It can also affect the accuracy of crime statistics and decisions about public funding.
1. Main consequences of unreported crime
Consequence Explanation Example
Domestic abuse affecting children and
Ripple effect Harm spreads beyond the immediate victim
families
Cultural Silence and social pressures may allow harmful practices to
Honour-based abuse
consequences continue
Persistent non-enforcement and changing attitudes may contribute Historical changes in laws concerning
Decriminalisation
to debate about removing criminal penalties consensual same-sex activity
Police prioritisation Underreporting makes some crime problems less visible Hate crime in a community
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
,Consequence Explanation Example
Unrecorded crime Official statistics underestimate some offences Sexual offences
Lack of justice Offenders may avoid investigation and prosecution Financial fraud
Continued
Offenders may repeat abuse or exploitation Coercive control
victimisation
Services may receive insufficient funding because demand is
Resource allocation Specialist victim-support services
underestimated
2. Original Model Answer
CRIMINOLOGY UNIT 1 — AC 1.3
Explain the Consequences of Unreported Crime
Introduction
Unreported crime refers to offences that are not reported to the police. These offences form part of the dark figure
of crime and are often absent from official police-recorded crime statistics.
When crimes remain unreported, the consequences can affect individuals, communities and the wider criminal
justice system. Important consequences include the ripple effect, cultural consequences, possible changes in
criminalisation, police prioritisation and the continued existence of unrecorded crime.
1. The Ripple Effect
The ripple effect occurs when the consequences of a crime extend beyond the immediate victim and affect other
people, such as family members, friends and the wider community.
For example, when domestic abuse remains unreported, the victim may continue experiencing physical injuries,
anxiety, depression or financial insecurity. Children living in the household may also experience fear, emotional
distress or disruption to their education.
Family members and friends may become distressed when they notice changes in the victim's behaviour but do
not understand what is happening.
If the offender is not investigated, the abuse may continue or escalate, creating further harm.
Therefore, unreported crime can produce lasting consequences for several people rather than affecting only the
original victim.
2. Cultural Consequences
Unreported crime can reinforce harmful social expectations, particularly when victims feel pressured to remain
silent.
For example, honour-based abuse may go unreported when perpetrators use threats, family pressure or social
exclusion to discourage victims from seeking help.
When victims cannot access protection, abusive behaviour may continue within particular families or social
networks.
The absence of reports may also create the misleading impression that these offences rarely occur, reducing
public awareness and the availability of appropriate support.
However, it is important not to assume that abuse is characteristic of an entire culture or religion. Criminal
behaviour is the responsibility of offenders, and harmful practices can be challenged within communities.
Consequently, unreported crime may allow abusive power relationships and harmful expectations to persist.
WJEC Criminology • Unit 1 | Original Student Revision Guide
