Chapter 7: Vitamins
EXCI 204 — Food for Sport · Chapter Study Notes (with formulas & calculations)
Chapter Overview
The Orkney Islands off northern Scotland have the world’s highest concentration of multiple sclerosis
(MS) — 1 in every 170 women. Cases are more common at northern and southern latitudes; proposed
reasons range from genetic predisposition to vitamin D deficiency, since sunlight is limited by short
winter days and cloud cover. Rickets is making a comeback in Scotland and northern England as
traditional fish and eggs give way to processed foods; U.K. health authorities propose fortifying milk
with vitamin D, as is common in the U.S.
The chapter covers: (7.1) vitamin sources, labels, bioavailability, functions, and DRIs; (7.2) the B vitamins
in energy metabolism (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, pantothenic acid, choline); (7.3) vitamins for
healthy blood (B₆, folate, B₁₂, K); (7.4) antioxidant vitamins (C, E); (7.5) vitamins in gene expression (A,
D); and (7.6) dietary and herbal supplements. Math in this chapter: the vitamin unit conversions (NE,
DFE, RAE, IU), % Daily Value on labels, and UL checks — each boxed where it appears and collected at
the end.
7.1 A Vitamin Primer
Learning objectives: Discuss dietary sources of vitamins · Describe vitamin information on food labels ·
Explain how bioavailability affects requirements · Discuss the DRI values used for vitamins.
KEY DEFINITION ⭐
vitamin — (Described in text) Organic compounds that are essential in small amounts in the diet to
promote and regulate body processes necessary for growth, reproduction, and the maintenance of
health.
When a vitamin is lacking, deficiency symptoms occur; when it is restored, the symptoms resolve.
Vitamins are grouped by solubility, which allows generalizations about absorption, transport, excretion,
and storage.
KEY DEFINITION ⭐
water-soluble vitamin — (Described in text) The B vitamins and vitamin C.
KEY DEFINITION ⭐
fat-soluble vitamin — (Described in text) Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 1
,Figure 7.1 — The vitamins ⭐
Water-soluble Fat-soluble
B vitamins: • Vitamin A
• Thiamin (B₁) • Vitamin D
• Riboflavin (B₂) • Vitamin E
• Niacin (B₃) • Vitamin K
• Biotin
• Pantothenic acid
• Vitamin B₆
• Folate
• Vitamin B₁₂
Vitamin C
Vitamins were named alphabetically, roughly in order of identification. The B vitamins were first
thought to be one substance, then found to be many, so they were numbered; B₆ and B₁₂ are the only
ones still routinely called by number.
Vitamins in Our Food
Almost all foods contain some vitamins, and all food groups contain good sources. The amount depends
on what is naturally present, what is added, and how the food is processed, prepared, and stored.
Vitamins on MyPlate ⭐
Food group Vitamins provided (Figure 7.2)
Fruits Folate, vitamin C, vitamin A
Vegetables Riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆, folate, vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K
Grains Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B₆, folate, vitamin E
Protein Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, pantothenic acid, folate, vitamin B₁₂,
vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin K
Dairy Riboflavin, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin B₁₂
Gaps Grains, fruits, and vegetables lack vitamin B₁₂; grains, dairy, and protein
foods are low in vitamin C
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 2
, DEBATE — EXAM EXAMPLE
Discretionary Fortification: Is It Beneficial?
Protein bars, breakfast cereals, flavored waters, and energy drinks are fortified at the
manufacturer’s discretion to enhance nutrient content and sales.
• History: grain enrichment (1940s) prevented B-vitamin and iron deficiencies; mandated
programs have helped prevent birth defects and deficiencies of vitamin A, vitamin D, and
iodine worldwide.
• For: more nutrient sources (e.g., calcium-fortified orange juice for someone who can’t tolerate
dairy); without fortified foods, many children and adolescents would have inadequate thiamin,
folate, and iron (but analyses didn’t separate mandated from discretionary fortification).
• Against — wrong targets: B₆ and B₁₂ are added to energy and sports drinks, though teens and
young adults aren’t low in them; older adults (more likely deficient) rarely drink them.
• Against — toxicity: drinking the recommended 2–3 liters of fluid as fortified water (vitamin C,
niacin, vitamin E, B₆) could exceed ULs, more so with 2 cups of fortified cereal and two protein
bars. A significant percentage of toddlers and preschoolers exceed ULs for preformed vitamin
A, folate, and zinc — much excess zinc likely from fortified cereals. These products are labeled
as foods but may carry supplement-like risks.
• Against — food choice: vitamin claims make consumers pick processed snacks (e.g., vitamin C-
fortified fruit snacks over an orange), raising added sugar intake.
• Conclusion: helpful or harmful depends on what’s in them, how much you eat, and who you
are.
Debate graph — food and fortification only, no supplements
Nutrient % of children 2–8 with intake ≥ UL (graph
reading — approximate)
Vitamin A (preformed) ≈ 13%
Niacin ≈ 8–9%
Folate ≈ 9–10%
Vitamin C ≈ 0%
Iron ≈ 0%
Zinc ≈ 45% (highest)
Selenium ≈ 6%
Why nutrients are added. Some additions are mandated: milk + vitamin D (prevent deficiency); refined
grains + thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, iron (prevent deficiencies) and + folic acid (reduce birth defects).
Others are added for marketing.
Vitamins on food labels ⭐. Vitamin D is the only vitamin required on the Nutrition Facts label; others
may be listed voluntarily. Required nutrients are those of concern for deficiency or excess when the
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 3
, regulations were written. Fresh fruits, vegetables, and fish carry no labels; the FDA asks stores to
voluntarily provide information for the most frequently purchased ones.
KEY CONCEPT ⭐
Reading % Daily Value for vitamins (Figure 7.3)
• ≥ 20% DV → excellent source
• 10–19% DV → good source
• ≤ 5% DV → poor source
FORMULA ⭐
% Daily Value and servings needed
% DV = amount per serving ÷ Daily Value × 100
Servings for 100% DV = 100% ÷ % DV per serving
Implied Daily Value = amount per serving ÷ (% DV ÷ 100)
Use it to judge vitamin sources on labels and to answer “how much would you need to eat”
questions.
• Trap: units differ by vitamin (mg, µg/mcg, µg RAE, mg NE, µg DFE) — keep units consistent.
WORKED EXAMPLE — calculated from textbook numbers
Figure 7.3 — Canned pink salmon (serving ⅓ cup, 85 g; 120 Calories; protein 16 g)
Label: vitamin D 11 mcg = 55%; calcium 180 mg = 14%; iron 1 mg = 6%; potassium 290 mg = 6%;
vitamin A 14 mcg = 2%; vitamin B₁₂ 3.7 mcg = 154%.
• Interpret the Data — servings for 100% DV of vitamin D: 100 ÷ 55 ≈ 1.8 servings ≈ 1.8 × ⅓ cup
≈ 0.6 cup (≈ 155 g) of salmon.
• Implied DVs: vitamin D 11 ÷ 0.55 = 20 mcg (matches Table 7.2); B₁₂ 3.7 ÷ 1.54 ≈ 2.4 mcg
(matches Table 7.2).
• Classification: vitamin D (55%) and B₁₂ (154%) = excellent; calcium (14%) = good; vitamin A
(2%) = poor.
Preserving vitamins. Vitamins can be damaged by light or oxygen, washed away, and destroyed by
cooking. Canned foods lose nutrients to high heat but are available, affordable, and keep long; “fresh”
produce may lose nutrients during a week in transit, days on shelves, and storage; frozen produce is
often frozen in the field and may supply more vitamins than “fresh” (Figure 7.4).
Tips for preserving vitamins ⭐
Tip (Table 7.1)
Choose locally grown fresh produce and eat it soon after purchase
Store produce away from heat and light
Cut fruits and vegetables as close as possible to cooking or serving
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 4
EXCI 204 — Food for Sport · Chapter Study Notes (with formulas & calculations)
Chapter Overview
The Orkney Islands off northern Scotland have the world’s highest concentration of multiple sclerosis
(MS) — 1 in every 170 women. Cases are more common at northern and southern latitudes; proposed
reasons range from genetic predisposition to vitamin D deficiency, since sunlight is limited by short
winter days and cloud cover. Rickets is making a comeback in Scotland and northern England as
traditional fish and eggs give way to processed foods; U.K. health authorities propose fortifying milk
with vitamin D, as is common in the U.S.
The chapter covers: (7.1) vitamin sources, labels, bioavailability, functions, and DRIs; (7.2) the B vitamins
in energy metabolism (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, pantothenic acid, choline); (7.3) vitamins for
healthy blood (B₆, folate, B₁₂, K); (7.4) antioxidant vitamins (C, E); (7.5) vitamins in gene expression (A,
D); and (7.6) dietary and herbal supplements. Math in this chapter: the vitamin unit conversions (NE,
DFE, RAE, IU), % Daily Value on labels, and UL checks — each boxed where it appears and collected at
the end.
7.1 A Vitamin Primer
Learning objectives: Discuss dietary sources of vitamins · Describe vitamin information on food labels ·
Explain how bioavailability affects requirements · Discuss the DRI values used for vitamins.
KEY DEFINITION ⭐
vitamin — (Described in text) Organic compounds that are essential in small amounts in the diet to
promote and regulate body processes necessary for growth, reproduction, and the maintenance of
health.
When a vitamin is lacking, deficiency symptoms occur; when it is restored, the symptoms resolve.
Vitamins are grouped by solubility, which allows generalizations about absorption, transport, excretion,
and storage.
KEY DEFINITION ⭐
water-soluble vitamin — (Described in text) The B vitamins and vitamin C.
KEY DEFINITION ⭐
fat-soluble vitamin — (Described in text) Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 1
,Figure 7.1 — The vitamins ⭐
Water-soluble Fat-soluble
B vitamins: • Vitamin A
• Thiamin (B₁) • Vitamin D
• Riboflavin (B₂) • Vitamin E
• Niacin (B₃) • Vitamin K
• Biotin
• Pantothenic acid
• Vitamin B₆
• Folate
• Vitamin B₁₂
Vitamin C
Vitamins were named alphabetically, roughly in order of identification. The B vitamins were first
thought to be one substance, then found to be many, so they were numbered; B₆ and B₁₂ are the only
ones still routinely called by number.
Vitamins in Our Food
Almost all foods contain some vitamins, and all food groups contain good sources. The amount depends
on what is naturally present, what is added, and how the food is processed, prepared, and stored.
Vitamins on MyPlate ⭐
Food group Vitamins provided (Figure 7.2)
Fruits Folate, vitamin C, vitamin A
Vegetables Riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆, folate, vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K
Grains Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B₆, folate, vitamin E
Protein Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, pantothenic acid, folate, vitamin B₁₂,
vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin K
Dairy Riboflavin, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin B₁₂
Gaps Grains, fruits, and vegetables lack vitamin B₁₂; grains, dairy, and protein
foods are low in vitamin C
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 2
, DEBATE — EXAM EXAMPLE
Discretionary Fortification: Is It Beneficial?
Protein bars, breakfast cereals, flavored waters, and energy drinks are fortified at the
manufacturer’s discretion to enhance nutrient content and sales.
• History: grain enrichment (1940s) prevented B-vitamin and iron deficiencies; mandated
programs have helped prevent birth defects and deficiencies of vitamin A, vitamin D, and
iodine worldwide.
• For: more nutrient sources (e.g., calcium-fortified orange juice for someone who can’t tolerate
dairy); without fortified foods, many children and adolescents would have inadequate thiamin,
folate, and iron (but analyses didn’t separate mandated from discretionary fortification).
• Against — wrong targets: B₆ and B₁₂ are added to energy and sports drinks, though teens and
young adults aren’t low in them; older adults (more likely deficient) rarely drink them.
• Against — toxicity: drinking the recommended 2–3 liters of fluid as fortified water (vitamin C,
niacin, vitamin E, B₆) could exceed ULs, more so with 2 cups of fortified cereal and two protein
bars. A significant percentage of toddlers and preschoolers exceed ULs for preformed vitamin
A, folate, and zinc — much excess zinc likely from fortified cereals. These products are labeled
as foods but may carry supplement-like risks.
• Against — food choice: vitamin claims make consumers pick processed snacks (e.g., vitamin C-
fortified fruit snacks over an orange), raising added sugar intake.
• Conclusion: helpful or harmful depends on what’s in them, how much you eat, and who you
are.
Debate graph — food and fortification only, no supplements
Nutrient % of children 2–8 with intake ≥ UL (graph
reading — approximate)
Vitamin A (preformed) ≈ 13%
Niacin ≈ 8–9%
Folate ≈ 9–10%
Vitamin C ≈ 0%
Iron ≈ 0%
Zinc ≈ 45% (highest)
Selenium ≈ 6%
Why nutrients are added. Some additions are mandated: milk + vitamin D (prevent deficiency); refined
grains + thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, iron (prevent deficiencies) and + folic acid (reduce birth defects).
Others are added for marketing.
Vitamins on food labels ⭐. Vitamin D is the only vitamin required on the Nutrition Facts label; others
may be listed voluntarily. Required nutrients are those of concern for deficiency or excess when the
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 3
, regulations were written. Fresh fruits, vegetables, and fish carry no labels; the FDA asks stores to
voluntarily provide information for the most frequently purchased ones.
KEY CONCEPT ⭐
Reading % Daily Value for vitamins (Figure 7.3)
• ≥ 20% DV → excellent source
• 10–19% DV → good source
• ≤ 5% DV → poor source
FORMULA ⭐
% Daily Value and servings needed
% DV = amount per serving ÷ Daily Value × 100
Servings for 100% DV = 100% ÷ % DV per serving
Implied Daily Value = amount per serving ÷ (% DV ÷ 100)
Use it to judge vitamin sources on labels and to answer “how much would you need to eat”
questions.
• Trap: units differ by vitamin (mg, µg/mcg, µg RAE, mg NE, µg DFE) — keep units consistent.
WORKED EXAMPLE — calculated from textbook numbers
Figure 7.3 — Canned pink salmon (serving ⅓ cup, 85 g; 120 Calories; protein 16 g)
Label: vitamin D 11 mcg = 55%; calcium 180 mg = 14%; iron 1 mg = 6%; potassium 290 mg = 6%;
vitamin A 14 mcg = 2%; vitamin B₁₂ 3.7 mcg = 154%.
• Interpret the Data — servings for 100% DV of vitamin D: 100 ÷ 55 ≈ 1.8 servings ≈ 1.8 × ⅓ cup
≈ 0.6 cup (≈ 155 g) of salmon.
• Implied DVs: vitamin D 11 ÷ 0.55 = 20 mcg (matches Table 7.2); B₁₂ 3.7 ÷ 1.54 ≈ 2.4 mcg
(matches Table 7.2).
• Classification: vitamin D (55%) and B₁₂ (154%) = excellent; calcium (14%) = good; vitamin A
(2%) = poor.
Preserving vitamins. Vitamins can be damaged by light or oxygen, washed away, and destroyed by
cooking. Canned foods lose nutrients to high heat but are available, affordable, and keep long; “fresh”
produce may lose nutrients during a week in transit, days on shelves, and storage; frozen produce is
often frozen in the field and may supply more vitamins than “fresh” (Figure 7.4).
Tips for preserving vitamins ⭐
Tip (Table 7.1)
Choose locally grown fresh produce and eat it soon after purchase
Store produce away from heat and light
Cut fruits and vegetables as close as possible to cooking or serving
EXCI 204 · Chapter 7 · Page 4
