Praxis 5621 Principles of
Learning and Teaching
Updated Questions and
Answers
100% Verified Exam Prep
and Comprehensive
Rationales Included
,Indirect instruction Indirect instruction is a teaching approach that uses inquiry and encourages higher
order thinking skills in an environment that encourage problem-solving and or
project based learning. Indirect instruction is based on the philosophy of
constructivism, which states that people derive meaning from their own
experiences.
Advance Organizers (content organization), Self-evaluation (rubric, reflective
journal), group discussion, questioning, guided discovery, inquiry or problem based
learning
Constructivist theory Based on the work of Jean Piaget, it is the view that knowledge is actively created
by individuals in interaction with the environment and with others. The child mentally
transforms the environment by relating new information to what he already knows or
believes. Emphasizes the interdependence of knowledge, development, learning,
and teaching. Development reflects progressive stages in the construction of
knowledge; learning is the application of this level of knowledge to new information;
the practice of teaching ideally facilitates this learning.
Individualistic paradigm A form of education where each student works on their own, separately from the
rest of the class.
Gestalt psychology Positive transfer of one task to another is achieved by arranging learning situations
so that a learner can gain insight into the problem to be solved. This type of learning
is thought to be permanent and reorganized knowledge may yield deep
understanding and thus transfer to new situations. "The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts." Built on the concept of children as active learners.
Gestalt psychology in teaching Learners are conceptualized as active constructors of knowledge rather than
passive recipients of information; they actively seek to make sense of the
environment by imposing structure and order on stimuli encountered through direct
perception and experience. In this view, instruction and teaching should help to "...
illustrate clear-cut structures as well as various degrees of structurization; present
hints as to the next step in proceeding; pace the learning; illustrate required
elements; point to gaps in the learning process, and illustrate sensible, productive
ways of dealing with a particular task in contrast to stupid ways." The most
important factor influencing learning is, their answer would be: "reaching insight and
understanding through restructuring."
Classical conditioning Behaviorists believe that learning is is guided by a set of laws. One of two main
laws, this refers to the phenomenon that a neutral stimulus (a bell) can lead to an
automatic involuntary response (salivation in a dog) after it is associated a number
of times with a stimulus that in itself triggers the automatic response (food). Ivan
Pavlov (1927), the discoverer of this phenomenon, termed this automatically
learned association a conditioned reflex.
Operant conditioning According to behaviorists, this happens when the learner's behavior is stimulated
(usually referred to as reinforced) by a positive outcome, or is punished by a
negative outcome BF Skinner (Thorndike, 1911).
Classical vs. Operant conditioning The conditioned response is set off automatically by an external stimulus (bell -
salivating dog (Pavlov)) vs. behavior is voluntarily executed by the learner (Cat
escaping cage (Thorndike)).
Behaviorist theory Reinforcement, and to a lesser extent punishment, shapes learning and should be
used by educators to create desired behavior and prevent unwanted behavior. In
the field of educational communications and technology, programmed learning was
based on behaviorist insights (Skinner, 1968). It consists of small learning steps
("frames") that the learner goes through in a self-paced way. Each frame contains a
segment of information and a question on which the learner will be provided
feedback. Behaviorists' answer to the question what the most important factor
influencing learning is, would simply be: "Reinforcement!"
,Developmental psychology Pioneered by Jean Piaget, Piagetians emphasize active discovery learning,
adapted to the child's developmental level. These theorists would argue that the
most important factor influencing learning is: "the cognitive-developmental stage the
learner finds himself in." Four developmental stages: Sensorimotor (0-2); Pre-
Operational (2-7); Concrete Operational (7-11); Formal Operational (11-adult).
Cultural-historical theory Cultural-historical theories stress the importance of social interaction with the world.
A central concept in this respect is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. The
basic idea is that children (and adult learners) learn by interacting with the world
and with others, that is, by performing meaningful tasks. At the lower limit of the
zone of proximal development are tasks that the learner can perform indepen-
dently; at the upper limit of the zone are the tasks that the learner can only perform
thanks to the support and guidance offered by others, such as a teacher, parent, or
more experi- enced peer. Thus, the zone of proximal development cap- tures the
skills that are in the process of maturing, and learning is optimized if tasks are in
this zone and can be accomplished only thanks to support and guidance provided
by others.
Scaffolding The given support and guidance gradually decreases as learners acquire more
knowledge and skills. Over the course of a learning process, a more-skilled person
thus adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the learners' current performance. In the
cultural-historical perspective, dialogue is an important tool in this process because
spontaneous concepts of the learner are then confronted with the rational and more
useful concepts of the teacher or a more experienced peer.
Information Processing Theories Concepts such as memory storage and retrieval, find their origin in the information
processing approach to cognition. The implications of information processing
theories for education lie in the supposed three-component architecture of the
human mind. Educators therefore need to take into account the computer-like
structure of the human mind, not only receiving information, but actively processing
it as well (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Grouping information into mean- ingful parts
(referred to as chunking) increases the chances of remembering the information
and reduces short-term memory load. Moreover, instruction should focus on
rehearsal of information in short-term memory to enable storage in long-term
memory. When a learned procedure is rehearsed often enough, it becomes
automatized and can be executed without effort. Finally, learners should be stimu-
lated to actively retrieve information from long-term mem- ory when necessary and
use it in short-term memory.
Types of Memory Information processing theorists viewed the human mind as an information
processing device containing distinct compo- nents: A sensory register, a short-term
memory, and a long- term memory. The sensory register is an extremely short-term
buffer of information, long enough to determine (uncon- sciously) whether
information should be passed on to short- term memory or, alternatively, be
discarded. Short-term memory is comparable to the central processing unit of a
computer, being all that is in the direct and immediate atten- tion of the individual,
limited in capacity and duration. Short- term memory integrates information from
long-term memory and the current environment. Long-term memory refers to all the
knowledge that is stored in the human brain for long-term use. Knowledge in long-
term memory that is not currently used is inactive, but can be retrieved and
manipulated in short-term memory when necessary.
, Symbolic Cognitive Theories This model describes learning environments aimed at complex learning as built
from four components: (1) learning tasks, which provide the backbone of an
educational pro- gram, (2) supportive information, which provides the infor- mation
helpful to perform nonroutine aspects of learning tasks (e.g., problem solving,
reasoning), (3) procedural information, which provides the just-in-time information
helpful to perform routine aspects of learning tasks, and (4) part-task practice, which
helps to automate selected routine aspects of learning tasks. Components 1 and 2
are based on theories of schema construction or declarative learning, in particular,
models of inductive learning (i.e., learning from different concrete experiences) for
learning tasks, and mod- els of elaboration (i.e., learning by connecting new
informa- tion to what you already know) for supportive information. Components 3
and 4 are based on theories of schema auto- mation or procedural learning, in
particular, models of knowledge compilation (i.e., embedding new information in
cognitive rules) for procedural information, and models of strengthening (i.e.,
automating cognitive rules by repetition) for part-task practice. A learning
environment built from the four components thus promotes four simultaneous
learning processes in a process of complex learning. Those learning processes will
be more effective as the learner has more knowledge to begin with, and
instructional methods that may be effective for learners with little prior knowledge
will often be ineffective for learners with high prior knowledge (i.e., the "expertise
reversal effect"; Kalyuga et al., 2003).
Cognitive Resource Theories Like cognitive symbolic models, cognitive resource theories build on the computer
metaphor of the human mind. But in contrast to symbolic cognitive models, resource
models do not refer to semantic representations in memory that convey mean- ing
but limit themselves to a specification of human cognitive architecture and,
especially, the capacity of memory systems. Most resource models make a
distinction between working memory and long-term memory to explain why
available cognitive resources for learning and performance are limited. Whereas the
capacity of long-term memory is virtually unlimited, working memory is very limited
in duration and in capacity. Information stored in working memory and not
rehearsed is lost within 30 s (Baddeley, 1992) and the capacity of work- ing memory
is limited to Miller's (1956) famous 7 ± 2 elements or, according to more recent
findings, even 4±1 element (Cowan, 2001). The interactions between working
memory and long-term memory are even more important than the direct processing
limitations of working memory itself (Sweller, 2004). The limitations of working
memory only apply to new, yet to be learned information that has not been stored in
long- term memory. When dealing with previously learned information stored in
long-term memory, the limitations disappear because constructed schemas in long-
term memory can be handled as one element in working memory.
Social Constructivism It argues that knowledge and even our idea of reality arise through social
relationships and interactions. That is, everything we know we have learned by
communi- cating and interacting with others, either personally or through
multimedia. The social constructivist is interested in how an individual learns as a
result of these interactions.
puts a strong focus on student discus- sion and learning through multimedia. Many
popular educa- tional formats such as problem-based learning and computer
supported collaborative learning (CSCL) have their roots in social constructivism.
According to social constructivism small or large group discussion increases student
motivation, and builds a deeper understanding of what students are learn- ing. It
also provides support for self-regulation of learning, as students can test the quality
of their knowledge on that of peer students. Social constructivist theory discourages
the use of traditional lectures, because of the minimal oppor- tunities for
communication and discussion with the teacher and fellow students.
Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory
Jerome Bruner Cognitive theorists who coined the term "scaffolding" for learning. This notion
underpins the idea of the spiral curriculum - 'A curriculum as it develops should
revisit this basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped
the full formal apparatus that goes with them' (ibid.: 13).
Motive for learning Interest in the material to be learned is the best motivation for learning, according to
Jerome Bruner. Rather than external grades, etc.
Learning and Teaching
Updated Questions and
Answers
100% Verified Exam Prep
and Comprehensive
Rationales Included
,Indirect instruction Indirect instruction is a teaching approach that uses inquiry and encourages higher
order thinking skills in an environment that encourage problem-solving and or
project based learning. Indirect instruction is based on the philosophy of
constructivism, which states that people derive meaning from their own
experiences.
Advance Organizers (content organization), Self-evaluation (rubric, reflective
journal), group discussion, questioning, guided discovery, inquiry or problem based
learning
Constructivist theory Based on the work of Jean Piaget, it is the view that knowledge is actively created
by individuals in interaction with the environment and with others. The child mentally
transforms the environment by relating new information to what he already knows or
believes. Emphasizes the interdependence of knowledge, development, learning,
and teaching. Development reflects progressive stages in the construction of
knowledge; learning is the application of this level of knowledge to new information;
the practice of teaching ideally facilitates this learning.
Individualistic paradigm A form of education where each student works on their own, separately from the
rest of the class.
Gestalt psychology Positive transfer of one task to another is achieved by arranging learning situations
so that a learner can gain insight into the problem to be solved. This type of learning
is thought to be permanent and reorganized knowledge may yield deep
understanding and thus transfer to new situations. "The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts." Built on the concept of children as active learners.
Gestalt psychology in teaching Learners are conceptualized as active constructors of knowledge rather than
passive recipients of information; they actively seek to make sense of the
environment by imposing structure and order on stimuli encountered through direct
perception and experience. In this view, instruction and teaching should help to "...
illustrate clear-cut structures as well as various degrees of structurization; present
hints as to the next step in proceeding; pace the learning; illustrate required
elements; point to gaps in the learning process, and illustrate sensible, productive
ways of dealing with a particular task in contrast to stupid ways." The most
important factor influencing learning is, their answer would be: "reaching insight and
understanding through restructuring."
Classical conditioning Behaviorists believe that learning is is guided by a set of laws. One of two main
laws, this refers to the phenomenon that a neutral stimulus (a bell) can lead to an
automatic involuntary response (salivation in a dog) after it is associated a number
of times with a stimulus that in itself triggers the automatic response (food). Ivan
Pavlov (1927), the discoverer of this phenomenon, termed this automatically
learned association a conditioned reflex.
Operant conditioning According to behaviorists, this happens when the learner's behavior is stimulated
(usually referred to as reinforced) by a positive outcome, or is punished by a
negative outcome BF Skinner (Thorndike, 1911).
Classical vs. Operant conditioning The conditioned response is set off automatically by an external stimulus (bell -
salivating dog (Pavlov)) vs. behavior is voluntarily executed by the learner (Cat
escaping cage (Thorndike)).
Behaviorist theory Reinforcement, and to a lesser extent punishment, shapes learning and should be
used by educators to create desired behavior and prevent unwanted behavior. In
the field of educational communications and technology, programmed learning was
based on behaviorist insights (Skinner, 1968). It consists of small learning steps
("frames") that the learner goes through in a self-paced way. Each frame contains a
segment of information and a question on which the learner will be provided
feedback. Behaviorists' answer to the question what the most important factor
influencing learning is, would simply be: "Reinforcement!"
,Developmental psychology Pioneered by Jean Piaget, Piagetians emphasize active discovery learning,
adapted to the child's developmental level. These theorists would argue that the
most important factor influencing learning is: "the cognitive-developmental stage the
learner finds himself in." Four developmental stages: Sensorimotor (0-2); Pre-
Operational (2-7); Concrete Operational (7-11); Formal Operational (11-adult).
Cultural-historical theory Cultural-historical theories stress the importance of social interaction with the world.
A central concept in this respect is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. The
basic idea is that children (and adult learners) learn by interacting with the world
and with others, that is, by performing meaningful tasks. At the lower limit of the
zone of proximal development are tasks that the learner can perform indepen-
dently; at the upper limit of the zone are the tasks that the learner can only perform
thanks to the support and guidance offered by others, such as a teacher, parent, or
more experi- enced peer. Thus, the zone of proximal development cap- tures the
skills that are in the process of maturing, and learning is optimized if tasks are in
this zone and can be accomplished only thanks to support and guidance provided
by others.
Scaffolding The given support and guidance gradually decreases as learners acquire more
knowledge and skills. Over the course of a learning process, a more-skilled person
thus adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the learners' current performance. In the
cultural-historical perspective, dialogue is an important tool in this process because
spontaneous concepts of the learner are then confronted with the rational and more
useful concepts of the teacher or a more experienced peer.
Information Processing Theories Concepts such as memory storage and retrieval, find their origin in the information
processing approach to cognition. The implications of information processing
theories for education lie in the supposed three-component architecture of the
human mind. Educators therefore need to take into account the computer-like
structure of the human mind, not only receiving information, but actively processing
it as well (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Grouping information into mean- ingful parts
(referred to as chunking) increases the chances of remembering the information
and reduces short-term memory load. Moreover, instruction should focus on
rehearsal of information in short-term memory to enable storage in long-term
memory. When a learned procedure is rehearsed often enough, it becomes
automatized and can be executed without effort. Finally, learners should be stimu-
lated to actively retrieve information from long-term mem- ory when necessary and
use it in short-term memory.
Types of Memory Information processing theorists viewed the human mind as an information
processing device containing distinct compo- nents: A sensory register, a short-term
memory, and a long- term memory. The sensory register is an extremely short-term
buffer of information, long enough to determine (uncon- sciously) whether
information should be passed on to short- term memory or, alternatively, be
discarded. Short-term memory is comparable to the central processing unit of a
computer, being all that is in the direct and immediate atten- tion of the individual,
limited in capacity and duration. Short- term memory integrates information from
long-term memory and the current environment. Long-term memory refers to all the
knowledge that is stored in the human brain for long-term use. Knowledge in long-
term memory that is not currently used is inactive, but can be retrieved and
manipulated in short-term memory when necessary.
, Symbolic Cognitive Theories This model describes learning environments aimed at complex learning as built
from four components: (1) learning tasks, which provide the backbone of an
educational pro- gram, (2) supportive information, which provides the infor- mation
helpful to perform nonroutine aspects of learning tasks (e.g., problem solving,
reasoning), (3) procedural information, which provides the just-in-time information
helpful to perform routine aspects of learning tasks, and (4) part-task practice, which
helps to automate selected routine aspects of learning tasks. Components 1 and 2
are based on theories of schema construction or declarative learning, in particular,
models of inductive learning (i.e., learning from different concrete experiences) for
learning tasks, and mod- els of elaboration (i.e., learning by connecting new
informa- tion to what you already know) for supportive information. Components 3
and 4 are based on theories of schema auto- mation or procedural learning, in
particular, models of knowledge compilation (i.e., embedding new information in
cognitive rules) for procedural information, and models of strengthening (i.e.,
automating cognitive rules by repetition) for part-task practice. A learning
environment built from the four components thus promotes four simultaneous
learning processes in a process of complex learning. Those learning processes will
be more effective as the learner has more knowledge to begin with, and
instructional methods that may be effective for learners with little prior knowledge
will often be ineffective for learners with high prior knowledge (i.e., the "expertise
reversal effect"; Kalyuga et al., 2003).
Cognitive Resource Theories Like cognitive symbolic models, cognitive resource theories build on the computer
metaphor of the human mind. But in contrast to symbolic cognitive models, resource
models do not refer to semantic representations in memory that convey mean- ing
but limit themselves to a specification of human cognitive architecture and,
especially, the capacity of memory systems. Most resource models make a
distinction between working memory and long-term memory to explain why
available cognitive resources for learning and performance are limited. Whereas the
capacity of long-term memory is virtually unlimited, working memory is very limited
in duration and in capacity. Information stored in working memory and not
rehearsed is lost within 30 s (Baddeley, 1992) and the capacity of work- ing memory
is limited to Miller's (1956) famous 7 ± 2 elements or, according to more recent
findings, even 4±1 element (Cowan, 2001). The interactions between working
memory and long-term memory are even more important than the direct processing
limitations of working memory itself (Sweller, 2004). The limitations of working
memory only apply to new, yet to be learned information that has not been stored in
long- term memory. When dealing with previously learned information stored in
long-term memory, the limitations disappear because constructed schemas in long-
term memory can be handled as one element in working memory.
Social Constructivism It argues that knowledge and even our idea of reality arise through social
relationships and interactions. That is, everything we know we have learned by
communi- cating and interacting with others, either personally or through
multimedia. The social constructivist is interested in how an individual learns as a
result of these interactions.
puts a strong focus on student discus- sion and learning through multimedia. Many
popular educa- tional formats such as problem-based learning and computer
supported collaborative learning (CSCL) have their roots in social constructivism.
According to social constructivism small or large group discussion increases student
motivation, and builds a deeper understanding of what students are learn- ing. It
also provides support for self-regulation of learning, as students can test the quality
of their knowledge on that of peer students. Social constructivist theory discourages
the use of traditional lectures, because of the minimal oppor- tunities for
communication and discussion with the teacher and fellow students.
Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory
Jerome Bruner Cognitive theorists who coined the term "scaffolding" for learning. This notion
underpins the idea of the spiral curriculum - 'A curriculum as it develops should
revisit this basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped
the full formal apparatus that goes with them' (ibid.: 13).
Motive for learning Interest in the material to be learned is the best motivation for learning, according to
Jerome Bruner. Rather than external grades, etc.
