Europe Since 1815 Test Two Study Guide
Alexander II- Alexander II ascended to the Russian throne in 1855. By this time, bitter defeats in
the Crimean War convinced him that modernizing reforms were needed. One major reform was
abolishing serfdom in 1861. Peasants gained their independence from the landed elite, although
they now became tied to their village. Another major reform was granting representative bodies
to the provinces and towns, although the authoritarian regime retained total control over national
policy. Tight political control and uneven economic growth promoted revolutionary radicalism,
which culminated with murdering the czar in 1881. Aside from domestic events, Alexander II
was important for expanding the empire over one-seventh of the world. Poland was incorporated
after rebellion was crushed, armies conquered Turkestan, and forces moved across Siberia.
Austro-Prussian War- This conflict was fought between Prussia and Austria in 1866. Prussian
Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck competed against Austria for control over the German states.
Conflict seemed certain, which Bismarck prepared for when negotiating neutrality with France
and alliance with Italy. After these efforts, Bismarck denounced Austrian aggression and invaded
the Holstein region. Conflict ended quickly with decisive victories over Austria and the smaller
German states that had allied with Austria. The Prussian victory was important because Austria
was removed as a rival for control of the German states. The German Confederation was partly
replaced with the North German Confederation that was federally organized with parliament
based upon universal male voting. Italy gained Venetia from Austria and completed unification.
Balkan War- The 1908 Young Turk Revolution forced constitutional reform within the Ottoman
Empire and convinced Austria that annexing Bosnia-Herzegovina was necessary for protecting
territorial ambitions. Serbia felt robbed because nationalism had been promoted in regions with
Serbian majorities. Serbia countered this setback by joining the Balkan League that had the goal
of capturing remaining Ottoman territory. This alliance performed well in the First Balkan War
from 1912-1913, although Bulgaria pulled away from Constantinople after Russia intervened to
guard Serbian goals. The other major European powers also intervened and created independent
Albania. The remaining territory of Macedonia fell under great dispute with Bulgaria feeling that
less was given than owed. Bulgaria pursued territorial goals when attacking former allies in the
Second Balkan War in 1913, but was defeated with Serbia becoming dominant. Bulgaria thought
that Russia had neglected traditional alliance during this period and turned to Germany. Serbia
then gained greater importance under Russia and received promises for future assistance.
The Blank Check- Germany sent a telegram to Austria-Hungary in July 1914 that stated there
would be no intrusion concerning actions against Serbia. The telegram promised that Germany
would faithfully stand by the alliance between the two powers. Basically, this telegram offered a
blank check of unconditional support for any actions that would punish Serbia for assassinating
Archduke Franz Ferdinand. This blank check of support reflects how Germany believed that not
guarding its lingering friend among diplomatic isolation would have consequences. This absolute
support also reflects how many military officials believed that conflict was inevitable.
Congo Free State- King Leopold II of Belgium obtained treaties in 1879 with local rulers that
established his personal claim over the Congo. This personal claim was recognized when the
Berlin Conference declared the Congo Free State in 1885 with the king as its leader. Leopold II
then promised that every effort would be taken to improve the moral and material condition of
the inhabitants. Despite this promise, the quest for resources placed unmatched horrors upon the
, indigenous people. Soldiers killed and mutilated thousands of people. This brutality forced the
Belgian Parliament to exercise direct control over the Congo Free State in 1908.
Crimean War- The Crimean War began in 1853 over Russian disagreement with the Ottoman
Empire concerning Christian privileges in the Holy Land. Western powers feared that Russian
expansion would threaten their own power and worked with the Ottoman Empire to defeat the
Russian forces in 1856. France, Britain, and Piedmont-Sardinia joined the conflict while Austria
remained neutral. It should be noted that Russian forces performed well when fighting on the
battlefield. Defeat mainly came from the inability to mobilize resources. Railroads were lacking
and national wealth was difficult to obtain. However, these shortcomings and military defeat
would convince Czar Alexander II that reform was necessary if Russia would become stronger.
Dual Monarchy (1867 Compromise) - Prussian victory over Austria in the 1866 Austro-Prussian
War encouraged Hungarian Magyars to demand more political power. Austrian emperor Francis
Joseph believed that retaining Magyar cooperation was crucial for any later conflict that would
bring revenge against Prussia. The resulting Compromise of 1867 created the Dual Monarchy of
Austria-Hungary. Hungary gained full internal autonomy with its own ministry in exchange for
the empire remaining one state for military and taxation purposes. The compromise was a victory
for Hungarian liberalism since the powers of the emperor were now more limited. However, the
junior status of Hungary created bitterness and encouraged greater Magyarization efforts against
subordinate nationalities.
1861 Emancipation- Czar Alexander II was shocked that Russia had suffered great defeat in the
Crimean War that ended in 1856. He believed that Russia could only overcome these setbacks by
becoming more westernized and modern. Serfdom was considered the greatest stumbling block
to modernization. It was thought that the state could not become modernized when most people
were held down. This stumbling block was removed when serfdom was abolished in 1861. The
peasantry obtained land parcels that required compensation and were no longer dependent upon
their landlords. However, peasants became tied to their communes by the authority of household
elders and could only leave with permission. Rebellion occurred because the peasants had sought
emancipation, but were not getting the full and free entitlement of land that was expected.
Entente Cordiale- Britain encountered hostile reactions from every European Power during the
Boer War in South Africa. This event demonstrated that Britain did not have any friends and
further strained relations with Germany. Britain also found itself almost getting dragged into
another conflict along with France during the Russo-Japanese War. In order to avoid going to
war on the side of their respective allies, France and Britain ignored their centuries long rivalry
and signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904. This agreement granted freedom of action to Britain in
Egypt and France in Morocco, outlined zones of influence in Siam, and renounced French claims
over Newfoundland fisheries. The Entente Cordiale reduced the virtual isolation that each power
had experienced and worried Germany since that power had relied upon Franco-British conflict.
Fashoda Affair- In 1898, the British and French rivalry culminated at Fashoda on the Nile River
in Sudan. France resented British control over Egypt and believed that controlling the Nile River
could hinder British power. France declared that Sudan was open to all European powers, which
prompted Britain to respond that any activity would be considered hostile. Britain reinforced this
answer by sending forces to Fashoda against French soldiers there. Nationalists in both countries
desired war, but the conflict ended calmly when France recognized British claims over the Nile
Alexander II- Alexander II ascended to the Russian throne in 1855. By this time, bitter defeats in
the Crimean War convinced him that modernizing reforms were needed. One major reform was
abolishing serfdom in 1861. Peasants gained their independence from the landed elite, although
they now became tied to their village. Another major reform was granting representative bodies
to the provinces and towns, although the authoritarian regime retained total control over national
policy. Tight political control and uneven economic growth promoted revolutionary radicalism,
which culminated with murdering the czar in 1881. Aside from domestic events, Alexander II
was important for expanding the empire over one-seventh of the world. Poland was incorporated
after rebellion was crushed, armies conquered Turkestan, and forces moved across Siberia.
Austro-Prussian War- This conflict was fought between Prussia and Austria in 1866. Prussian
Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck competed against Austria for control over the German states.
Conflict seemed certain, which Bismarck prepared for when negotiating neutrality with France
and alliance with Italy. After these efforts, Bismarck denounced Austrian aggression and invaded
the Holstein region. Conflict ended quickly with decisive victories over Austria and the smaller
German states that had allied with Austria. The Prussian victory was important because Austria
was removed as a rival for control of the German states. The German Confederation was partly
replaced with the North German Confederation that was federally organized with parliament
based upon universal male voting. Italy gained Venetia from Austria and completed unification.
Balkan War- The 1908 Young Turk Revolution forced constitutional reform within the Ottoman
Empire and convinced Austria that annexing Bosnia-Herzegovina was necessary for protecting
territorial ambitions. Serbia felt robbed because nationalism had been promoted in regions with
Serbian majorities. Serbia countered this setback by joining the Balkan League that had the goal
of capturing remaining Ottoman territory. This alliance performed well in the First Balkan War
from 1912-1913, although Bulgaria pulled away from Constantinople after Russia intervened to
guard Serbian goals. The other major European powers also intervened and created independent
Albania. The remaining territory of Macedonia fell under great dispute with Bulgaria feeling that
less was given than owed. Bulgaria pursued territorial goals when attacking former allies in the
Second Balkan War in 1913, but was defeated with Serbia becoming dominant. Bulgaria thought
that Russia had neglected traditional alliance during this period and turned to Germany. Serbia
then gained greater importance under Russia and received promises for future assistance.
The Blank Check- Germany sent a telegram to Austria-Hungary in July 1914 that stated there
would be no intrusion concerning actions against Serbia. The telegram promised that Germany
would faithfully stand by the alliance between the two powers. Basically, this telegram offered a
blank check of unconditional support for any actions that would punish Serbia for assassinating
Archduke Franz Ferdinand. This blank check of support reflects how Germany believed that not
guarding its lingering friend among diplomatic isolation would have consequences. This absolute
support also reflects how many military officials believed that conflict was inevitable.
Congo Free State- King Leopold II of Belgium obtained treaties in 1879 with local rulers that
established his personal claim over the Congo. This personal claim was recognized when the
Berlin Conference declared the Congo Free State in 1885 with the king as its leader. Leopold II
then promised that every effort would be taken to improve the moral and material condition of
the inhabitants. Despite this promise, the quest for resources placed unmatched horrors upon the
, indigenous people. Soldiers killed and mutilated thousands of people. This brutality forced the
Belgian Parliament to exercise direct control over the Congo Free State in 1908.
Crimean War- The Crimean War began in 1853 over Russian disagreement with the Ottoman
Empire concerning Christian privileges in the Holy Land. Western powers feared that Russian
expansion would threaten their own power and worked with the Ottoman Empire to defeat the
Russian forces in 1856. France, Britain, and Piedmont-Sardinia joined the conflict while Austria
remained neutral. It should be noted that Russian forces performed well when fighting on the
battlefield. Defeat mainly came from the inability to mobilize resources. Railroads were lacking
and national wealth was difficult to obtain. However, these shortcomings and military defeat
would convince Czar Alexander II that reform was necessary if Russia would become stronger.
Dual Monarchy (1867 Compromise) - Prussian victory over Austria in the 1866 Austro-Prussian
War encouraged Hungarian Magyars to demand more political power. Austrian emperor Francis
Joseph believed that retaining Magyar cooperation was crucial for any later conflict that would
bring revenge against Prussia. The resulting Compromise of 1867 created the Dual Monarchy of
Austria-Hungary. Hungary gained full internal autonomy with its own ministry in exchange for
the empire remaining one state for military and taxation purposes. The compromise was a victory
for Hungarian liberalism since the powers of the emperor were now more limited. However, the
junior status of Hungary created bitterness and encouraged greater Magyarization efforts against
subordinate nationalities.
1861 Emancipation- Czar Alexander II was shocked that Russia had suffered great defeat in the
Crimean War that ended in 1856. He believed that Russia could only overcome these setbacks by
becoming more westernized and modern. Serfdom was considered the greatest stumbling block
to modernization. It was thought that the state could not become modernized when most people
were held down. This stumbling block was removed when serfdom was abolished in 1861. The
peasantry obtained land parcels that required compensation and were no longer dependent upon
their landlords. However, peasants became tied to their communes by the authority of household
elders and could only leave with permission. Rebellion occurred because the peasants had sought
emancipation, but were not getting the full and free entitlement of land that was expected.
Entente Cordiale- Britain encountered hostile reactions from every European Power during the
Boer War in South Africa. This event demonstrated that Britain did not have any friends and
further strained relations with Germany. Britain also found itself almost getting dragged into
another conflict along with France during the Russo-Japanese War. In order to avoid going to
war on the side of their respective allies, France and Britain ignored their centuries long rivalry
and signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904. This agreement granted freedom of action to Britain in
Egypt and France in Morocco, outlined zones of influence in Siam, and renounced French claims
over Newfoundland fisheries. The Entente Cordiale reduced the virtual isolation that each power
had experienced and worried Germany since that power had relied upon Franco-British conflict.
Fashoda Affair- In 1898, the British and French rivalry culminated at Fashoda on the Nile River
in Sudan. France resented British control over Egypt and believed that controlling the Nile River
could hinder British power. France declared that Sudan was open to all European powers, which
prompted Britain to respond that any activity would be considered hostile. Britain reinforced this
answer by sending forces to Fashoda against French soldiers there. Nationalists in both countries
desired war, but the conflict ended calmly when France recognized British claims over the Nile
