Grammar
Relative clauses
Restrictive relative clauses are used to define what we are talking about, they give
essential information.
The contract which we want to negotiate will run for six years.
Non-restrictive relative clauses give extra, non-essential information.
His contract, which he negotiated last week, runs for six years.
Both restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses use the following relative
pronouns: who, whom, which, whose, where, when, why.
- Restrictive relative clauses
o Have no commas
o Can replace who or which with that
o Can omit who, which or that when they are object of the clause
- Non-restrictive relative clauses
o Use commas
o Do not use that
o Cannot omit the relative pronoun
Whom is used instead of who:
- When preceded by a preposition (the person to whom you are referring …)
- When it is the object of the relative clause, in formal written English
When is a time-relative pronoun, where is a location-relative pronoun
Future: simple and future continuous
Use the future simple (will + infinitive)
- In written English
- To make predictions based on your opinions
- To express a decision made at the moment of speaking
- To make an invitation, a promise or an offer
Use the future continues (will + be + -ing)
- To say that something will be going on at a particular moment in the future
- To talk about a future event that is going on at a specific time
- To talk about a future activity which is the result of a previous arrangement
- To talk about things that will happen anyway
State verbs (seem, be, appear, believe, contain, suppose) are not normally used in the
continuous.
Future: clauses
In time clauses which refer to the future time, use a present tense (after, when, while,
as soon as, until, after, before and as)
I shall retire when I am 67
Use the present simple in time clauses for things which will happen:
- At a particular moment in the future (we will start the meeting when she arrives)
- For the same length of time as something else mentioned in the future (I will
type the report when you do the graphics)
Use the present continuous for something:
, - Which will happen for longer than something else mentioned in the future (I
expect we will reach agreement while we are having coffee after lunch)
- In progress at a time in the future (we won’t be able to entertain visitors while
we are refurbishing the offices)
Use the present perfect for things which have finished before a time in the future (our
output should double when we have built the new factor)
Conditionals
- Zero conditional: if + present tense, present tense
o If demand drops, prices fall too
o = used to talk about general rules
- First conditional: if + present tense, future tense/ modal verb
o If the Central Bank raises interest rates, that will affect the exchange rate
o = used to talk about real, possible or likely events in present or future
time
- Second conditional: if + past simple/continuous, would/could/might + infinitive
o If we had a fire in one of our factories, we would almost certainly have
difficulty meeting our orders.
o = used to talk about imaginary, hypothetical or less likely events, in
present or future time
- Third conditional: if + past perfect simple/ continuous, would/could/might have
+ past participle
o If we had paid attention to our computer forecasts, we would not have had
such a large production shortfall this year
o = used to talk about things which did not happen in the past
Adverb position
There are three main positions for adverbs:
- Front: Last year, sales exceeded €100m
- Middle: Small businesses usually have far fewer resources
- End: Our advertising budgets have been cut drastically.
Adverbs which can go in front are:
- Linking adverbs: however, consequently
- Time and place adverbs: by next year, in a recent article
- Comment adverbs: in my opinion, probably
Adverbs which can go in the middle are:
- Frequency adverbs: usually, never
- Degree adverbs: totally, slightly
- These adverbs: already, finally, now, recently, soon, still
Adverbs which can go at the end:
- Manner: impressively, carefully
- Place: in the boardroom
- Time: in the last three years
MPT-rule
Linking words
By the contrast ≠ on the contrary
Relative clauses
Restrictive relative clauses are used to define what we are talking about, they give
essential information.
The contract which we want to negotiate will run for six years.
Non-restrictive relative clauses give extra, non-essential information.
His contract, which he negotiated last week, runs for six years.
Both restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses use the following relative
pronouns: who, whom, which, whose, where, when, why.
- Restrictive relative clauses
o Have no commas
o Can replace who or which with that
o Can omit who, which or that when they are object of the clause
- Non-restrictive relative clauses
o Use commas
o Do not use that
o Cannot omit the relative pronoun
Whom is used instead of who:
- When preceded by a preposition (the person to whom you are referring …)
- When it is the object of the relative clause, in formal written English
When is a time-relative pronoun, where is a location-relative pronoun
Future: simple and future continuous
Use the future simple (will + infinitive)
- In written English
- To make predictions based on your opinions
- To express a decision made at the moment of speaking
- To make an invitation, a promise or an offer
Use the future continues (will + be + -ing)
- To say that something will be going on at a particular moment in the future
- To talk about a future event that is going on at a specific time
- To talk about a future activity which is the result of a previous arrangement
- To talk about things that will happen anyway
State verbs (seem, be, appear, believe, contain, suppose) are not normally used in the
continuous.
Future: clauses
In time clauses which refer to the future time, use a present tense (after, when, while,
as soon as, until, after, before and as)
I shall retire when I am 67
Use the present simple in time clauses for things which will happen:
- At a particular moment in the future (we will start the meeting when she arrives)
- For the same length of time as something else mentioned in the future (I will
type the report when you do the graphics)
Use the present continuous for something:
, - Which will happen for longer than something else mentioned in the future (I
expect we will reach agreement while we are having coffee after lunch)
- In progress at a time in the future (we won’t be able to entertain visitors while
we are refurbishing the offices)
Use the present perfect for things which have finished before a time in the future (our
output should double when we have built the new factor)
Conditionals
- Zero conditional: if + present tense, present tense
o If demand drops, prices fall too
o = used to talk about general rules
- First conditional: if + present tense, future tense/ modal verb
o If the Central Bank raises interest rates, that will affect the exchange rate
o = used to talk about real, possible or likely events in present or future
time
- Second conditional: if + past simple/continuous, would/could/might + infinitive
o If we had a fire in one of our factories, we would almost certainly have
difficulty meeting our orders.
o = used to talk about imaginary, hypothetical or less likely events, in
present or future time
- Third conditional: if + past perfect simple/ continuous, would/could/might have
+ past participle
o If we had paid attention to our computer forecasts, we would not have had
such a large production shortfall this year
o = used to talk about things which did not happen in the past
Adverb position
There are three main positions for adverbs:
- Front: Last year, sales exceeded €100m
- Middle: Small businesses usually have far fewer resources
- End: Our advertising budgets have been cut drastically.
Adverbs which can go in front are:
- Linking adverbs: however, consequently
- Time and place adverbs: by next year, in a recent article
- Comment adverbs: in my opinion, probably
Adverbs which can go in the middle are:
- Frequency adverbs: usually, never
- Degree adverbs: totally, slightly
- These adverbs: already, finally, now, recently, soon, still
Adverbs which can go at the end:
- Manner: impressively, carefully
- Place: in the boardroom
- Time: in the last three years
MPT-rule
Linking words
By the contrast ≠ on the contrary
