,1 What are psychotropic drugs?.................................................................................................6
1.1 Intake................................................................................................................................6
1.2 Dosage..............................................................................................................................6
1.3 Side effects and therapeutic window...............................................................................6
1.4 Titration and tolerance.....................................................................................................7
1.5 Research into how psychotropic drugs work...................................................................7
1.6 Placebo-controlled studies...............................................................................................8
1.7 Random sampling and statistics.......................................................................................8
1.8 Pre-clinical and clinical research......................................................................................8
1.9 Statistical analysis.............................................................................................................9
2 The Structure of the Nervous System.....................................................................................9
2.1 Research methods..........................................................................................................10
2.2 The exterior of the brain................................................................................................10
2.3 Connections to the exterior of the brain........................................................................11
2.4 The bottom of the brain.................................................................................................12
2.5 The interior of the brain.................................................................................................12
2.6 Connections with the interior of the brain.....................................................................13
2.7 Outside of the brain.......................................................................................................13
2.8 Autonomic, somatic and peripheral nervous system.....................................................14
3 The Neuron............................................................................................................................15
3.1 The neuron cell body......................................................................................................15
3.2 The cell nucleus..............................................................................................................16
3.3 The genetic determination of behaviour.......................................................................17
3.4 The function of the nerve cell part 1: the resting state.................................................17
3.5 The function of the nerve cell part 2: from rest to action.............................................18
3.6 The function of the nerve cell part 3: even more action...............................................19
3.7 The function of the nerve cell part 4: even more complicated......................................19
4 Neurotransmission................................................................................................................23
4.1 The synapse....................................................................................................................23
4.2 The availability of neurotransmitters: targets for psychotropic drugs...........................23
4.3 The postsynaptic processes............................................................................................25
, 4.4 Blocking and influencing................................................................................................26
4.5 Relays..............................................................................................................................27
4.6 Two forms of neurotransmission....................................................................................27
4.7 Astrocyte signalling........................................................................................................28
5 Principles of Psychopharmacology........................................................................................29
5.1 Dose-response curve (DRC)............................................................................................29
5.2 Potency, efficacy and the therapeutic window..............................................................29
5.3 Individual differences in drug response.........................................................................30
5.4 Non-monotonic DRCs.....................................................................................................30
5.5 Receptor interaction.......................................................................................................31
5.6 Pharmacodynamics........................................................................................................31
5.7 Pharmacokinetics...........................................................................................................32
5.8 Tolerance, sensitisation and desensitisation..................................................................33
5.9 Acute versus chronic......................................................................................................34
6 Stimulants..............................................................................................................................34
6.1 Why are stimulants stimulating?....................................................................................35
6.2 Caffeine...........................................................................................................................35
6.3 Nicotine..........................................................................................................................36
6.4 Amphetamine.................................................................................................................36
6.5 Cocaine...........................................................................................................................37
6.6 Methylphenidate............................................................................................................37
6.7 Other cognitive enhancers (and cognitive enhancers for others)..................................38
6.8 Costs of (high doses of) stimulants................................................................................39
6.9 Methylphenidate versus cocaine: additional remarks...................................................39
7 Mood Stabilizers....................................................................................................................40
7.1 Depression and mania....................................................................................................40
7.2 Major depressive disorders and individual differences.................................................41
7.3 Stress and the brain........................................................................................................41
7.4 Chemical imbalance.......................................................................................................42
7.5 Antidepressants: the selective inhibition of serotonin reuptake...................................42
7.6 Other antidepressants....................................................................................................43
7.7 Stimulants and depression.............................................................................................43
, 7.8 Depression and the immune system..............................................................................44
7.9 Bipolar disorder: lithium.................................................................................................44
9 Antipsychotics........................................................................................................................45
9.1 Schizophrenia and psychosis..........................................................................................45
9.2 Classic antipsychotics.....................................................................................................46
9.3 Aberrant brain circuits: dopamine.................................................................................46
9.4 Blocking dopamine: side effects.....................................................................................47
9.5 Aberrant brain circuits: other neurotransmitters...........................................................48
9.6 Atypical antipsychotics...................................................................................................49
9.7 Sensory protection.........................................................................................................49
10 Psychedelics and related substances...................................................................................51
10.1 General characteristics of psychedelics........................................................................51
10.2 Cannabis.......................................................................................................................52
10.3 The effect of cannabis in the brain...............................................................................52
10.4 Psychological effects of cannabis.................................................................................54
10.5 Ecstasy..........................................................................................................................55
10.6 LSD................................................................................................................................56
10.7 Dissociatives and deliriants..........................................................................................56
10.8 Zombie drugs................................................................................................................57
10.9 Therapeutic psychedelics.............................................................................................58
11 Dependence........................................................................................................................58
11.1 Desensitisation and tolerance......................................................................................58
11.2 Liking versus wanting...................................................................................................59
12 Neurological disorders.........................................................................................................60
12.1 Parkinson’s Disease......................................................................................................60
12.2 Huntington’s Disease....................................................................................................61
12.3 Alzheimer’s Disease......................................................................................................62
12.4 Stroke............................................................................................................................64
12.5 Other Neurological Disorders.......................................................................................65
12.6 Epilepsy.........................................................................................................................65
12.7 Encephalitis: older perspective for a new vista............................................................66
Practice Test..............................................................................................................................67
1.1 Intake................................................................................................................................6
1.2 Dosage..............................................................................................................................6
1.3 Side effects and therapeutic window...............................................................................6
1.4 Titration and tolerance.....................................................................................................7
1.5 Research into how psychotropic drugs work...................................................................7
1.6 Placebo-controlled studies...............................................................................................8
1.7 Random sampling and statistics.......................................................................................8
1.8 Pre-clinical and clinical research......................................................................................8
1.9 Statistical analysis.............................................................................................................9
2 The Structure of the Nervous System.....................................................................................9
2.1 Research methods..........................................................................................................10
2.2 The exterior of the brain................................................................................................10
2.3 Connections to the exterior of the brain........................................................................11
2.4 The bottom of the brain.................................................................................................12
2.5 The interior of the brain.................................................................................................12
2.6 Connections with the interior of the brain.....................................................................13
2.7 Outside of the brain.......................................................................................................13
2.8 Autonomic, somatic and peripheral nervous system.....................................................14
3 The Neuron............................................................................................................................15
3.1 The neuron cell body......................................................................................................15
3.2 The cell nucleus..............................................................................................................16
3.3 The genetic determination of behaviour.......................................................................17
3.4 The function of the nerve cell part 1: the resting state.................................................17
3.5 The function of the nerve cell part 2: from rest to action.............................................18
3.6 The function of the nerve cell part 3: even more action...............................................19
3.7 The function of the nerve cell part 4: even more complicated......................................19
4 Neurotransmission................................................................................................................23
4.1 The synapse....................................................................................................................23
4.2 The availability of neurotransmitters: targets for psychotropic drugs...........................23
4.3 The postsynaptic processes............................................................................................25
, 4.4 Blocking and influencing................................................................................................26
4.5 Relays..............................................................................................................................27
4.6 Two forms of neurotransmission....................................................................................27
4.7 Astrocyte signalling........................................................................................................28
5 Principles of Psychopharmacology........................................................................................29
5.1 Dose-response curve (DRC)............................................................................................29
5.2 Potency, efficacy and the therapeutic window..............................................................29
5.3 Individual differences in drug response.........................................................................30
5.4 Non-monotonic DRCs.....................................................................................................30
5.5 Receptor interaction.......................................................................................................31
5.6 Pharmacodynamics........................................................................................................31
5.7 Pharmacokinetics...........................................................................................................32
5.8 Tolerance, sensitisation and desensitisation..................................................................33
5.9 Acute versus chronic......................................................................................................34
6 Stimulants..............................................................................................................................34
6.1 Why are stimulants stimulating?....................................................................................35
6.2 Caffeine...........................................................................................................................35
6.3 Nicotine..........................................................................................................................36
6.4 Amphetamine.................................................................................................................36
6.5 Cocaine...........................................................................................................................37
6.6 Methylphenidate............................................................................................................37
6.7 Other cognitive enhancers (and cognitive enhancers for others)..................................38
6.8 Costs of (high doses of) stimulants................................................................................39
6.9 Methylphenidate versus cocaine: additional remarks...................................................39
7 Mood Stabilizers....................................................................................................................40
7.1 Depression and mania....................................................................................................40
7.2 Major depressive disorders and individual differences.................................................41
7.3 Stress and the brain........................................................................................................41
7.4 Chemical imbalance.......................................................................................................42
7.5 Antidepressants: the selective inhibition of serotonin reuptake...................................42
7.6 Other antidepressants....................................................................................................43
7.7 Stimulants and depression.............................................................................................43
, 7.8 Depression and the immune system..............................................................................44
7.9 Bipolar disorder: lithium.................................................................................................44
9 Antipsychotics........................................................................................................................45
9.1 Schizophrenia and psychosis..........................................................................................45
9.2 Classic antipsychotics.....................................................................................................46
9.3 Aberrant brain circuits: dopamine.................................................................................46
9.4 Blocking dopamine: side effects.....................................................................................47
9.5 Aberrant brain circuits: other neurotransmitters...........................................................48
9.6 Atypical antipsychotics...................................................................................................49
9.7 Sensory protection.........................................................................................................49
10 Psychedelics and related substances...................................................................................51
10.1 General characteristics of psychedelics........................................................................51
10.2 Cannabis.......................................................................................................................52
10.3 The effect of cannabis in the brain...............................................................................52
10.4 Psychological effects of cannabis.................................................................................54
10.5 Ecstasy..........................................................................................................................55
10.6 LSD................................................................................................................................56
10.7 Dissociatives and deliriants..........................................................................................56
10.8 Zombie drugs................................................................................................................57
10.9 Therapeutic psychedelics.............................................................................................58
11 Dependence........................................................................................................................58
11.1 Desensitisation and tolerance......................................................................................58
11.2 Liking versus wanting...................................................................................................59
12 Neurological disorders.........................................................................................................60
12.1 Parkinson’s Disease......................................................................................................60
12.2 Huntington’s Disease....................................................................................................61
12.3 Alzheimer’s Disease......................................................................................................62
12.4 Stroke............................................................................................................................64
12.5 Other Neurological Disorders.......................................................................................65
12.6 Epilepsy.........................................................................................................................65
12.7 Encephalitis: older perspective for a new vista............................................................66
Practice Test..............................................................................................................................67
