Cultural psychology lecture notes
M1.1 what is culture?
What are people like?
Every person is to some degree…
… like all other people
… like some other people, and
… like no other person
Think of the quote you just saw: Every person is to some degree like all other people,
like some other people, and like no other person. Can you find a characteristics of
yourself that is: a) Like all other people? b) Like some other people? c) Like no other
person? Are these three related to culture? If so, how; and if not, why?
- Like all other people: I need food, water, and sleep to live.
- Like some other people: I enjoy listening to music and playing games.
- Like no other person: My exact combination of personality, experiences, and
memories is unique.
Culture: Yes, these can be related to culture because culture influences our
interests, habits, and values. However, some things, like needing food and sleep, are
universal and not mainly cultural.
What is Culture?
“… a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and
transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival,
pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life (betekenis aan het
leven ontlenen)” (Matsumoto & Juang, 2023, p. 16)
Culture is also a pair of glasses that we are constantly looking through – a schema to
help us evaluate and organize information
Goals of Cross-Cultural Psychology
1. Build a body of knowledge about people (bouw een kennisbasis op over mensen)
(main goal)
◼ Transport and test hypotheses and findings to other cultural settings
◼ Explore cultures in order to discover cultural and psychological similarities and
differences
◼ Integrate findings into a more universal psychology
2. Improve people’s lives, purpose is to have a positive impact on people’s lives.
We need cross-cultural psychology because ‘we’ are ultimately WEIRD
What does ‘our’ research look like?
Psychological research is based on studies among WEIRD samples (Western,
educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic)
• This is not representative for mankind (mensheid). Most people do not fall under
WEIRD
• 73% of first authors were at American universities; 99% were at universities in
Western countries.
• 96% of psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the world’s
population.
,Why is that relevant?
“Our thesis is not that humans share few basic psychological properties or
processes; rather, we question our current ability to distinguish these reliably … given
the disproportionate reliance on WEIRD subjects” (p. 62-63). Henrich
What have Henrich et al compared (vergeleken)?
- Modern industrialized vs. small scale societies
- Western vs. non-Western industrialized societies
- Americans versus other Westerners
- University versus non-university educated Americans
Sampling bias is common.
Where are we headed (waar gaan we naartoe)?
- There is considerable (aanzienlijke) growth in cross-cultural psychological
research.
- Editorials in journals acknowledge the need for better sampling.
- There is a clear need to keep asking: “Can we apply/use previous psychological
findings for all groups and populations?”
Reminder:
Culture is a pair of glasses that we are constantly looking through – a schema
to help us evaluate and organize information.
We are not typically aware and research have no acceptations of that. Wearing
glasses becomes normal, and we only become aware of it when something changes.
This can link to ethnocentrism: The tendency (neiging) to view the world through
one’s own cultural filters (p.344). Ethnocentrism is not perse good or bad. Its just
informs us that we grow up a certain way, we get used to it, and we believe the rest
of the world.
How does Culture develop?
Origins of Culture
Environment comes with demands for adaptation
- Climate
- Resources
- Population density (bevolkingsdichtheid)
Illustration
The Rice vs. Wheat (tarwe) Theory says that
farming rice requires more teamwork and
cooperation than farming wheat. Therefore,
people in rice-growing areas may develop more
cooperative and group-oriented cultures,
while wheat-growing areas may encourage more independence and individualism.
, Origins of Culture
Latitudinal Psychology (van de Vliert, 2023)
- Environmental stressors (operationalized as
distance from equator)
- Affluence (welvaart): money, access to good, services. People or groups with
more money can purchase things and services to help manage environmental
stresses. People and groups with less money, cannot and thus, the way of living
is more affected by environmental stress.
What are theoretical approaches to understanding cultural differences and
similarities?
Different greetings across cultures
1. Absolutism – psychology is everywhere the same, there are no differences at al.
2. Relativism – underlying processes are different, everything could be different
3. Universalism – underlying processes are the same, expressions may be different.
The reasons why people do things, or the needs and the desires that they may
have, they might be similar, but how the express it can be quit different.
Important reminder: things may look different, but they may serve the same purpose.
Etics: Universal psychological processes or behavior
Emics: Culture-specific processes or behavior
Clarifying Key Terms
- Society =/= Culture (not the same)
◼ Society refers to a system or a structure of interrelationships among
individuals and groups
◼ Culture refers to the meaning and the value of that we are associating with
some of these structures, and particularly with relationships to other people
- Country =/= Culture (not the same)
Country Is a geopolitical definition. It’s a legal entity, and absolutely critical to
understand how people live, how they act, and how they coordinate their whole
life. But it does not equate with culture. There can be subtle differences between
regions, or more pronounced differences between regions.
Clarifying Key Terms: Race
Race - More of a social construction than a biological essential (p.20)
Culture provides race its meaning:
➔ Racial differences are not useful for scientific or practical purposes without a clear
understanding of the underlying causes of the similarities and differences observed
Clarifying Key Terms: Ethnicity
- Ethnicity: groups characterized by a common nationality, geographic
origin, culture, or language (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993, see text book p. 20).
- Ethnicity =/= race, more connected to culture (e.g., ethnic identity).
Ethnicity and race are not the same. Race is mainly based on physical
characteristics and social classifications, while ethnicity is more connected to
culture, ancestry, language, traditions, and identity. Therefore, people of the same
race can have different ethnic backgrounds.
, - Different discourses in Europe vs US
Latitudinal psychology (breedtegraadpsychologie) is a theory that suggests that
distance from the equator (evenaar) can predict country levels of psychological
variables, such as creativity, aggressiveness, life satisfaction, individualism, trust, and
suicidality.
M1.2 content of culture
First we need to differentiate between the objective and the subjective elements of
culture. In everyday language, when we speak about culture, we often refer to the
objective things: the things you can observe directly, objective elements:
- Art
- Mass media
- Architecture
- Clothes
- Social media
- Food
- Music
- Advertising
- Eating utensils
- Texts
But for us as psychologists, the subjective elements are even more important. The
subjective elements of culture are things that you cannot directly observe, things that
are more internal to people.
Subjective Theoretical frameworks
elements: (theoretische kaders)
Values • Individualism vs. collectivism Hofstede’s cultural values
• Power distance
• Long- vs. short-term
orientation
Beliefs • Dynamic externality Bond & Leung’s social
• Societal cynicism axioms
• Religions
Norms • Rituals Gelfand’s tightness-
• Etiquette and politeness looseness
• Tightness vs. looseness
Attitudes • Opinions
• Stereotypes
• Prejudice
Worldviews • Self-concepts Markus & Kitayama’s
• Cultural worldviews independent
• Attributions and interdependent self
Values: Hofstede’s cultural values
Hofstede: Individualism/Collectivism
- Most cited general framework to classify cultural patterns on the country level
M1.1 what is culture?
What are people like?
Every person is to some degree…
… like all other people
… like some other people, and
… like no other person
Think of the quote you just saw: Every person is to some degree like all other people,
like some other people, and like no other person. Can you find a characteristics of
yourself that is: a) Like all other people? b) Like some other people? c) Like no other
person? Are these three related to culture? If so, how; and if not, why?
- Like all other people: I need food, water, and sleep to live.
- Like some other people: I enjoy listening to music and playing games.
- Like no other person: My exact combination of personality, experiences, and
memories is unique.
Culture: Yes, these can be related to culture because culture influences our
interests, habits, and values. However, some things, like needing food and sleep, are
universal and not mainly cultural.
What is Culture?
“… a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and
transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival,
pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life (betekenis aan het
leven ontlenen)” (Matsumoto & Juang, 2023, p. 16)
Culture is also a pair of glasses that we are constantly looking through – a schema to
help us evaluate and organize information
Goals of Cross-Cultural Psychology
1. Build a body of knowledge about people (bouw een kennisbasis op over mensen)
(main goal)
◼ Transport and test hypotheses and findings to other cultural settings
◼ Explore cultures in order to discover cultural and psychological similarities and
differences
◼ Integrate findings into a more universal psychology
2. Improve people’s lives, purpose is to have a positive impact on people’s lives.
We need cross-cultural psychology because ‘we’ are ultimately WEIRD
What does ‘our’ research look like?
Psychological research is based on studies among WEIRD samples (Western,
educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic)
• This is not representative for mankind (mensheid). Most people do not fall under
WEIRD
• 73% of first authors were at American universities; 99% were at universities in
Western countries.
• 96% of psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the world’s
population.
,Why is that relevant?
“Our thesis is not that humans share few basic psychological properties or
processes; rather, we question our current ability to distinguish these reliably … given
the disproportionate reliance on WEIRD subjects” (p. 62-63). Henrich
What have Henrich et al compared (vergeleken)?
- Modern industrialized vs. small scale societies
- Western vs. non-Western industrialized societies
- Americans versus other Westerners
- University versus non-university educated Americans
Sampling bias is common.
Where are we headed (waar gaan we naartoe)?
- There is considerable (aanzienlijke) growth in cross-cultural psychological
research.
- Editorials in journals acknowledge the need for better sampling.
- There is a clear need to keep asking: “Can we apply/use previous psychological
findings for all groups and populations?”
Reminder:
Culture is a pair of glasses that we are constantly looking through – a schema
to help us evaluate and organize information.
We are not typically aware and research have no acceptations of that. Wearing
glasses becomes normal, and we only become aware of it when something changes.
This can link to ethnocentrism: The tendency (neiging) to view the world through
one’s own cultural filters (p.344). Ethnocentrism is not perse good or bad. Its just
informs us that we grow up a certain way, we get used to it, and we believe the rest
of the world.
How does Culture develop?
Origins of Culture
Environment comes with demands for adaptation
- Climate
- Resources
- Population density (bevolkingsdichtheid)
Illustration
The Rice vs. Wheat (tarwe) Theory says that
farming rice requires more teamwork and
cooperation than farming wheat. Therefore,
people in rice-growing areas may develop more
cooperative and group-oriented cultures,
while wheat-growing areas may encourage more independence and individualism.
, Origins of Culture
Latitudinal Psychology (van de Vliert, 2023)
- Environmental stressors (operationalized as
distance from equator)
- Affluence (welvaart): money, access to good, services. People or groups with
more money can purchase things and services to help manage environmental
stresses. People and groups with less money, cannot and thus, the way of living
is more affected by environmental stress.
What are theoretical approaches to understanding cultural differences and
similarities?
Different greetings across cultures
1. Absolutism – psychology is everywhere the same, there are no differences at al.
2. Relativism – underlying processes are different, everything could be different
3. Universalism – underlying processes are the same, expressions may be different.
The reasons why people do things, or the needs and the desires that they may
have, they might be similar, but how the express it can be quit different.
Important reminder: things may look different, but they may serve the same purpose.
Etics: Universal psychological processes or behavior
Emics: Culture-specific processes or behavior
Clarifying Key Terms
- Society =/= Culture (not the same)
◼ Society refers to a system or a structure of interrelationships among
individuals and groups
◼ Culture refers to the meaning and the value of that we are associating with
some of these structures, and particularly with relationships to other people
- Country =/= Culture (not the same)
Country Is a geopolitical definition. It’s a legal entity, and absolutely critical to
understand how people live, how they act, and how they coordinate their whole
life. But it does not equate with culture. There can be subtle differences between
regions, or more pronounced differences between regions.
Clarifying Key Terms: Race
Race - More of a social construction than a biological essential (p.20)
Culture provides race its meaning:
➔ Racial differences are not useful for scientific or practical purposes without a clear
understanding of the underlying causes of the similarities and differences observed
Clarifying Key Terms: Ethnicity
- Ethnicity: groups characterized by a common nationality, geographic
origin, culture, or language (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993, see text book p. 20).
- Ethnicity =/= race, more connected to culture (e.g., ethnic identity).
Ethnicity and race are not the same. Race is mainly based on physical
characteristics and social classifications, while ethnicity is more connected to
culture, ancestry, language, traditions, and identity. Therefore, people of the same
race can have different ethnic backgrounds.
, - Different discourses in Europe vs US
Latitudinal psychology (breedtegraadpsychologie) is a theory that suggests that
distance from the equator (evenaar) can predict country levels of psychological
variables, such as creativity, aggressiveness, life satisfaction, individualism, trust, and
suicidality.
M1.2 content of culture
First we need to differentiate between the objective and the subjective elements of
culture. In everyday language, when we speak about culture, we often refer to the
objective things: the things you can observe directly, objective elements:
- Art
- Mass media
- Architecture
- Clothes
- Social media
- Food
- Music
- Advertising
- Eating utensils
- Texts
But for us as psychologists, the subjective elements are even more important. The
subjective elements of culture are things that you cannot directly observe, things that
are more internal to people.
Subjective Theoretical frameworks
elements: (theoretische kaders)
Values • Individualism vs. collectivism Hofstede’s cultural values
• Power distance
• Long- vs. short-term
orientation
Beliefs • Dynamic externality Bond & Leung’s social
• Societal cynicism axioms
• Religions
Norms • Rituals Gelfand’s tightness-
• Etiquette and politeness looseness
• Tightness vs. looseness
Attitudes • Opinions
• Stereotypes
• Prejudice
Worldviews • Self-concepts Markus & Kitayama’s
• Cultural worldviews independent
• Attributions and interdependent self
Values: Hofstede’s cultural values
Hofstede: Individualism/Collectivism
- Most cited general framework to classify cultural patterns on the country level
