HIST 449 – Women and Fascism
Benito Mussolini: What is Fascism, 1932
--context involves shortly preceding the rise of Hitler, economic devastation of the Great
Depression, lasting anger over territorial losses of World War One, demographic decline with
loss of great numbers of men, women needing money to replace lost income of men, fear of
losing culture and military power by lower population; tensions are very high
--Mussolini defines fascism as not being economically motivated to distance movement from
socialism and reveal how it is not driven by class conflict and inequality- economic
--Italy was a part of the Allied Powers, but one that was marginalized; did not receive what it had
desired in land granting
--favored war in an aggressive stance as part of an expansionist and imperialist agenda that
sought to rekindle the glory and wealth of the Roman Empire- political
--liberalism is criticized for putting forward the myth of political equality and troubles of a
capitalist system- political
--disillusioned with liberal government for seeing it as a government that caused and increases
the problems of Italy- political
--ambivalent towards individualism; individuals are allowed freedoms, but are not greater than
the state and can be restricted- social/cultural
--people have a duty towards life and are required to sacrifice for the nation; nation is to maintain
vitality through conquest and avoid decadence- descriptor of fascism
--increase in strength, order, and direction is described as inevitable and spontaneous; best done
under the guidance of fascism- descriptor of fascism
--fascism is a modern and living thing that must be sacrificed for in the form of death through
military service and child-bearing for women- descriptor of fascism
--heroism and martyrdom are to be valued, whether in peacetime or during wartime; people must
belong to movement- descriptor of fascism
--religion is not referred to in traditional sense; religion is addressed in form of state religion and
cult leadership- religion
--economic system is lightly addressed to keep attention away from Marxism and allow for
malleability; does not have to follow specific promise- economy
Robert Paxton: Five Stages of Fascism
--fascism is emphasized as a system that intends to promote unity and order; is described as a
system or cycle
, --fascism is described as a reaction to democracy, a reaction that is not static and can change; has
to be understood through its daily operation
--no one definitive handbook of fascism may be found; does not follow any one guide, but is
carried out differently from country to country
--key contradiction exists in rhetoric with emphasis of fascism being part of a modern revolution,
but also supporting traditional goals
Additional Factors of Fascism
--xenophobic; a fear of all those considered to be part of the other groups led to persecution
--anti-communist; demonization and steep hatred in blaming communism in great part for
failures of state
--autarchy; producing everything that is needed in the country as part of economic self-
sufficiency; a mixed economy that includes elements of capitalism (big business and private
property) and communism (state-run industry and regulations)
--militaristic; all economic efforts are for the preparation of war and expansion to other areas,
even in peacetime
--anti-working class; against urban factory workers for representing new industrialism and being
more likely to be communist
--pro-peasantry; supports farmers for representing the old and authentic roots of tradition;
peasantry are more likely to be conservative and have many children, key fascist parts
--inclusive; everyone is supposed to be able to come together and work for the betterment of the
state
--most early supporters were of the lower-middle class
Passmore: Women, Gender, Fascism, and Europe
--author Claudia Koonz of Mothers in the Fatherland
*active roles as collaborators in fascism and perpetrators in the Holocaust
*active role was contrasted against traditional view of women being a passive victim
*women are declared to have been empowered through motherhood; declared that demands
placed upon births should allow them to have rights of citizenry
*biological sex and traditional gender roles allowed women to work within fascist policies and
gain empowerment
Benito Mussolini: What is Fascism, 1932
--context involves shortly preceding the rise of Hitler, economic devastation of the Great
Depression, lasting anger over territorial losses of World War One, demographic decline with
loss of great numbers of men, women needing money to replace lost income of men, fear of
losing culture and military power by lower population; tensions are very high
--Mussolini defines fascism as not being economically motivated to distance movement from
socialism and reveal how it is not driven by class conflict and inequality- economic
--Italy was a part of the Allied Powers, but one that was marginalized; did not receive what it had
desired in land granting
--favored war in an aggressive stance as part of an expansionist and imperialist agenda that
sought to rekindle the glory and wealth of the Roman Empire- political
--liberalism is criticized for putting forward the myth of political equality and troubles of a
capitalist system- political
--disillusioned with liberal government for seeing it as a government that caused and increases
the problems of Italy- political
--ambivalent towards individualism; individuals are allowed freedoms, but are not greater than
the state and can be restricted- social/cultural
--people have a duty towards life and are required to sacrifice for the nation; nation is to maintain
vitality through conquest and avoid decadence- descriptor of fascism
--increase in strength, order, and direction is described as inevitable and spontaneous; best done
under the guidance of fascism- descriptor of fascism
--fascism is a modern and living thing that must be sacrificed for in the form of death through
military service and child-bearing for women- descriptor of fascism
--heroism and martyrdom are to be valued, whether in peacetime or during wartime; people must
belong to movement- descriptor of fascism
--religion is not referred to in traditional sense; religion is addressed in form of state religion and
cult leadership- religion
--economic system is lightly addressed to keep attention away from Marxism and allow for
malleability; does not have to follow specific promise- economy
Robert Paxton: Five Stages of Fascism
--fascism is emphasized as a system that intends to promote unity and order; is described as a
system or cycle
, --fascism is described as a reaction to democracy, a reaction that is not static and can change; has
to be understood through its daily operation
--no one definitive handbook of fascism may be found; does not follow any one guide, but is
carried out differently from country to country
--key contradiction exists in rhetoric with emphasis of fascism being part of a modern revolution,
but also supporting traditional goals
Additional Factors of Fascism
--xenophobic; a fear of all those considered to be part of the other groups led to persecution
--anti-communist; demonization and steep hatred in blaming communism in great part for
failures of state
--autarchy; producing everything that is needed in the country as part of economic self-
sufficiency; a mixed economy that includes elements of capitalism (big business and private
property) and communism (state-run industry and regulations)
--militaristic; all economic efforts are for the preparation of war and expansion to other areas,
even in peacetime
--anti-working class; against urban factory workers for representing new industrialism and being
more likely to be communist
--pro-peasantry; supports farmers for representing the old and authentic roots of tradition;
peasantry are more likely to be conservative and have many children, key fascist parts
--inclusive; everyone is supposed to be able to come together and work for the betterment of the
state
--most early supporters were of the lower-middle class
Passmore: Women, Gender, Fascism, and Europe
--author Claudia Koonz of Mothers in the Fatherland
*active roles as collaborators in fascism and perpetrators in the Holocaust
*active role was contrasted against traditional view of women being a passive victim
*women are declared to have been empowered through motherhood; declared that demands
placed upon births should allow them to have rights of citizenry
*biological sex and traditional gender roles allowed women to work within fascist policies and
gain empowerment
