WGU D236 Pathophysiology - Megan Shay's Study Guide
What is the primary determinant of oncotic pressure? Albumin
Form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins Oncotic Pressure
What is the difference between adult and child immunity? Naive T Cells
Fluid and electrolyte levels are regulated by Osmoreceptors
_________________, which regulates actions such as
thirst, ADH, the kidneys, and RAAS.
What are the causes of dehydration? #Excessive loss
#Inadequate intake
#Both
What s/sx are associated with dehydration? #Dry mucous membranes
#Decreased skin turgor
#Decreased urine output
#Low blood pressure
#Tachycardia
#Weak heart rate
#Confusion
A patient with a viral illness and severe vomiting has an Metabolic alkalosis
elevated CO2 level and pH of 7.53. She is breathing
slowly. What condition does she have? The patient's pH and CO2 levels are both elevated (moving in the same direction).
This indicates metabolic alkalosis. The CO2 level is high because her respiratory
system is attempting to compensate for the high pH by exhaling less and retaining
more CO2.
Normal CO2 level 35-45
Normal pH level 7.35-7.45
Normal HCO3 level 22-26
Stuvia 2026-2027
, WGU D236 Pathophysiology - Megan Shay's Study Guide
Michael's pulmonary edema leads to respiratory acidosis. His CO2 level is increased because his lungs have difficulty removing it from the
How does pH impact Michael's basal metabolic panel? bloodstream.
Choose 3 answers.
His sodium level is decreased due to hypervolemia.
His CO2 level is increased because his lungs have
difficulty removing it from the bloodstream. His K+ is elevated because, as H+ moves inside of cells in an attempt to get it out of
the bloodstream, K+ moves from cells into the bloodstream.
His calcium level is reduced because the elevated
concentration of H+ makes it easier for Ca+ to bind to
albumin.
His CO2 level is decreased because his lungs have
difficulty adding it into the bloodstream.
His sodium level is decreased due to hypervolemia.
His K+ is elevated because, as H+ moves inside of cells in
an attempt to get it out of the bloodstream, K+ moves from
cells into the bloodstream.
A hormone panel was done on a patient with congestive BNP
heart failure and fluid volume overload. Which elevated
hormone on the patient's chart is indicative of the body's BNP is released when fluid volume excess is present.
attempt to reduce the fluid overload?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)
Aldosterone
Renin
Normal sodium level 135-145
Hyponatremia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Na < 135
Loss of energy or fatigue
Nausea and vomiting
Headache
Confusion
Muscle spasms
Low blood pressure
Dark scanty urine
Irritability, disorientation and neurological manifestations
Seizures
Hypernatremia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx Na > 145
Excessive thirst
Extreme fatigue
Confusion
Muscle twitching or spasms
Restlessness
Seizures
Normal potassium level 3.5-5.0
Hypokalemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx K < 3.5
#Muscle fatigue/cramping
#Nausea, vomiting, constipation
#Cardiac dysrhythmias
#Paresthesia (numbness/tingling)
Stuvia 2026-2027
, WGU D236 Pathophysiology - Megan Shay's Study Guide
Hyperkalemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? K > 5.0
Muscle weakness/paralysis
Paresthesia (numbness/tingling)
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Cardiac arrest/MI
Normal calcium level 8.5-10.5
Hypocalcemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Calcium < 8.5
Overexcitability of the muscles
Muscle twitching
Paresthesia (numbness/tingling)
Chvostek and Trousseau sign (twitching on the cheek when touched)
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Hypercalcemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Calcium > 10.5
Muscle weakness
Loss of muscle tone
Spontaneous fractures
Kidney stones
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Normal magnesium level 1.6-2.6
Hypomagnesemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Magnesium level < 1.6
Tremors
Hyperreflexia
Insomnia
Muscle cramps
Irregular heart beat
Hypermagnesemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Magnesium level > 2.6
Hyporeflexia
Lethargy
Respiratory depression
N/V
Slow/Irregular heart beat
Tay-Sachs Disease An autosomal recessive inherited genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele
(chromosome 15) that leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain.
Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually
become manifest a few months after birth, followed by death within a few years.
Marfan Syndrome Inherited autosomal dominant trait (only one abnormal copy of the Marfan gene
inherited from one parent) FBN1 gene. Genetic connective tissue disorder that can
affect aorta and heart valve structures.
**If one parent has Marfan syndrome, each child has a 50% chance of inheriting the
abnormal gene and developing the condition. If both parents have the condition, the
risk of their child inheriting the abnormal gene and developing Marfan syndrome
increases to 75%.
Stuvia 2026-2027
, WGU D236 Pathophysiology - Megan Shay's Study Guide
Turner Syndrome A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing,
making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.
Underdeveloped ovaries (sterile)
Short stature (under 4' 7")
Amenorrhea
Webbing of the neck
Edema
Underdeveloped breasts/wide nipples
Respiratory rate increases during exercise. How does this The increased exhalation of CO2 helps to increase pH.
increased respiratory rate allow the body to maintain a
homeostatic pH level? (The increased respiratory rate allows more CO2 to be exhaled. Since CO2 reacts
with water to form carbonic acid, getting rid of more CO2 through increased
respiration will raise pH)
An ICU patient's arterial blood gas results show low pH Metabolic acidosis
and low CO2 levels. The patient's respiratory rate is
increased. What is the name of this condition? (Since the pH is low, and the pH and CO2 are trending in the same direction, the
condition is metabolic acidosis. The low CO2 indicates that CO2 is not causing the
acidosis. The increased respiratory rate lowers blood CO2 in an attempt to
compensate for the metabolic acidosis.)
Your patient has pulmonary edema, which raises levels of The kidneys excrete more H+ and conserve HCO3-
CO2 in the blood. What helps the patient's body to
compensate for this increase? (The increased CO2 level will generate more carbonic acid. The body must
compensate for the decreased pH. Excreting more H+ and conserving HCO3- will
The kidneys conserve H+ and conserve HCO3- both help to increase pH.)
The kidneys excrete more H+ and conserve HCO3-
The kidneys conserve H+ and excrete more HCO3-
The kidneys excrete more H+ and excrete more HCO3-
Heberden and Bouchard's nodes are indicative of what Osteoarthritis
disease process?
You receive a patient who has experienced a burn on the Second Degree (partial thickness)
right leg. The burn has small blisters, is markedly pinkish
red, and has a shiny and moist appearance. When the Second degree: Partial thickness burns can be either superficial partial thickness or
patient is asked about pain level, the patient describes it deep partial thickness, depending on the degree of tissue necrosis of the dermal
as severe. layer. These burns can char the epidermis and papillary dermal layer, with resultant
edema and formation of epidermal blisters. Burned skin is wet, raw, and pink or
What level of burn does this patient present? cherry red in color that blanches with pressure.
Superficial thickness / Partial or intermediate thickness /
Full Thickness / Fourth Degree
Identify degrees of burn, and other s/s to that degree burn First-degree (Superficial) burns affect only the outer layer of the skin. They cause
pain, redness, and swelling (no blistering/scarring).
Second-degree (Partial or intermediate thickness) burns affect both the outer and
underlying layer of skin. They cause pain, redness, swelling, and blistering.
Pink/Cherry in color that blanches.
Third-degree (Full thickness) burns affect the deep layers of skin. High risk of
infection.
Fourth-degree burns involve muscle or bone.
Stuvia 2026-2027
What is the primary determinant of oncotic pressure? Albumin
Form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins Oncotic Pressure
What is the difference between adult and child immunity? Naive T Cells
Fluid and electrolyte levels are regulated by Osmoreceptors
_________________, which regulates actions such as
thirst, ADH, the kidneys, and RAAS.
What are the causes of dehydration? #Excessive loss
#Inadequate intake
#Both
What s/sx are associated with dehydration? #Dry mucous membranes
#Decreased skin turgor
#Decreased urine output
#Low blood pressure
#Tachycardia
#Weak heart rate
#Confusion
A patient with a viral illness and severe vomiting has an Metabolic alkalosis
elevated CO2 level and pH of 7.53. She is breathing
slowly. What condition does she have? The patient's pH and CO2 levels are both elevated (moving in the same direction).
This indicates metabolic alkalosis. The CO2 level is high because her respiratory
system is attempting to compensate for the high pH by exhaling less and retaining
more CO2.
Normal CO2 level 35-45
Normal pH level 7.35-7.45
Normal HCO3 level 22-26
Stuvia 2026-2027
, WGU D236 Pathophysiology - Megan Shay's Study Guide
Michael's pulmonary edema leads to respiratory acidosis. His CO2 level is increased because his lungs have difficulty removing it from the
How does pH impact Michael's basal metabolic panel? bloodstream.
Choose 3 answers.
His sodium level is decreased due to hypervolemia.
His CO2 level is increased because his lungs have
difficulty removing it from the bloodstream. His K+ is elevated because, as H+ moves inside of cells in an attempt to get it out of
the bloodstream, K+ moves from cells into the bloodstream.
His calcium level is reduced because the elevated
concentration of H+ makes it easier for Ca+ to bind to
albumin.
His CO2 level is decreased because his lungs have
difficulty adding it into the bloodstream.
His sodium level is decreased due to hypervolemia.
His K+ is elevated because, as H+ moves inside of cells in
an attempt to get it out of the bloodstream, K+ moves from
cells into the bloodstream.
A hormone panel was done on a patient with congestive BNP
heart failure and fluid volume overload. Which elevated
hormone on the patient's chart is indicative of the body's BNP is released when fluid volume excess is present.
attempt to reduce the fluid overload?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)
Aldosterone
Renin
Normal sodium level 135-145
Hyponatremia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Na < 135
Loss of energy or fatigue
Nausea and vomiting
Headache
Confusion
Muscle spasms
Low blood pressure
Dark scanty urine
Irritability, disorientation and neurological manifestations
Seizures
Hypernatremia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx Na > 145
Excessive thirst
Extreme fatigue
Confusion
Muscle twitching or spasms
Restlessness
Seizures
Normal potassium level 3.5-5.0
Hypokalemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx K < 3.5
#Muscle fatigue/cramping
#Nausea, vomiting, constipation
#Cardiac dysrhythmias
#Paresthesia (numbness/tingling)
Stuvia 2026-2027
, WGU D236 Pathophysiology - Megan Shay's Study Guide
Hyperkalemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? K > 5.0
Muscle weakness/paralysis
Paresthesia (numbness/tingling)
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Cardiac arrest/MI
Normal calcium level 8.5-10.5
Hypocalcemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Calcium < 8.5
Overexcitability of the muscles
Muscle twitching
Paresthesia (numbness/tingling)
Chvostek and Trousseau sign (twitching on the cheek when touched)
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Hypercalcemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Calcium > 10.5
Muscle weakness
Loss of muscle tone
Spontaneous fractures
Kidney stones
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Normal magnesium level 1.6-2.6
Hypomagnesemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Magnesium level < 1.6
Tremors
Hyperreflexia
Insomnia
Muscle cramps
Irregular heart beat
Hypermagnesemia is indicated by what lab result? S/Sx? Magnesium level > 2.6
Hyporeflexia
Lethargy
Respiratory depression
N/V
Slow/Irregular heart beat
Tay-Sachs Disease An autosomal recessive inherited genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele
(chromosome 15) that leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain.
Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually
become manifest a few months after birth, followed by death within a few years.
Marfan Syndrome Inherited autosomal dominant trait (only one abnormal copy of the Marfan gene
inherited from one parent) FBN1 gene. Genetic connective tissue disorder that can
affect aorta and heart valve structures.
**If one parent has Marfan syndrome, each child has a 50% chance of inheriting the
abnormal gene and developing the condition. If both parents have the condition, the
risk of their child inheriting the abnormal gene and developing Marfan syndrome
increases to 75%.
Stuvia 2026-2027
, WGU D236 Pathophysiology - Megan Shay's Study Guide
Turner Syndrome A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing,
making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.
Underdeveloped ovaries (sterile)
Short stature (under 4' 7")
Amenorrhea
Webbing of the neck
Edema
Underdeveloped breasts/wide nipples
Respiratory rate increases during exercise. How does this The increased exhalation of CO2 helps to increase pH.
increased respiratory rate allow the body to maintain a
homeostatic pH level? (The increased respiratory rate allows more CO2 to be exhaled. Since CO2 reacts
with water to form carbonic acid, getting rid of more CO2 through increased
respiration will raise pH)
An ICU patient's arterial blood gas results show low pH Metabolic acidosis
and low CO2 levels. The patient's respiratory rate is
increased. What is the name of this condition? (Since the pH is low, and the pH and CO2 are trending in the same direction, the
condition is metabolic acidosis. The low CO2 indicates that CO2 is not causing the
acidosis. The increased respiratory rate lowers blood CO2 in an attempt to
compensate for the metabolic acidosis.)
Your patient has pulmonary edema, which raises levels of The kidneys excrete more H+ and conserve HCO3-
CO2 in the blood. What helps the patient's body to
compensate for this increase? (The increased CO2 level will generate more carbonic acid. The body must
compensate for the decreased pH. Excreting more H+ and conserving HCO3- will
The kidneys conserve H+ and conserve HCO3- both help to increase pH.)
The kidneys excrete more H+ and conserve HCO3-
The kidneys conserve H+ and excrete more HCO3-
The kidneys excrete more H+ and excrete more HCO3-
Heberden and Bouchard's nodes are indicative of what Osteoarthritis
disease process?
You receive a patient who has experienced a burn on the Second Degree (partial thickness)
right leg. The burn has small blisters, is markedly pinkish
red, and has a shiny and moist appearance. When the Second degree: Partial thickness burns can be either superficial partial thickness or
patient is asked about pain level, the patient describes it deep partial thickness, depending on the degree of tissue necrosis of the dermal
as severe. layer. These burns can char the epidermis and papillary dermal layer, with resultant
edema and formation of epidermal blisters. Burned skin is wet, raw, and pink or
What level of burn does this patient present? cherry red in color that blanches with pressure.
Superficial thickness / Partial or intermediate thickness /
Full Thickness / Fourth Degree
Identify degrees of burn, and other s/s to that degree burn First-degree (Superficial) burns affect only the outer layer of the skin. They cause
pain, redness, and swelling (no blistering/scarring).
Second-degree (Partial or intermediate thickness) burns affect both the outer and
underlying layer of skin. They cause pain, redness, swelling, and blistering.
Pink/Cherry in color that blanches.
Third-degree (Full thickness) burns affect the deep layers of skin. High risk of
infection.
Fourth-degree burns involve muscle or bone.
Stuvia 2026-2027
