Anatomy & Physiology 2 Final Exam Study Guide
What is a hormone? A chemical messenger released into the bloodstream to
target cells.
What are the two major classes of Steroid (lipid-soluble): cortisol, estrogen; Non-steroid
hormones and examples of each? (water-soluble): insulin.
What is a negative feedback system? Output shuts off original stimulus, maintaining
homeostasis.
What are the three ways hormones may Hormonal, humoral (ion/nutrient levels), neural.
be stimulated for production and
secretion?
What are the six anterior pituitary GH - growth; TSH - stimulates thyroid; ACTH -
hormones and their functions? stimulates adrenal cortex; FSH - gamete production;
LH - ovulation/testosterone; Prolactin - milk production.
What is the function of thyroid Increases metabolism.
hormone?
What hormone stimulates thyroid TSH.
hormone release?
What are the two hormones involved in PTH → increases blood Ca²⁺; Calcitonin → decreases
calcium homeostasis? blood Ca²⁺.
What is the function of aldosterone? Increases Na⁺ & water reabsorption, increasing blood
pressure.
What triggers the release of Low blood pressure, low Na⁺, high K⁺.
aldosterone?
Stuvia 2026-2027
, Anatomy & Physiology 2 Final Exam Study Guide
Which hormone is antagonistic to ANP.
aldosterone?
What organ secretes ANP? Heart.
What hormones are released by the Epinephrine → fight/flight; Cortisol → increases
adrenal gland in response to stress? glucose.
What hormones are secreted by the Insulin → decreases blood glucose; Glucagon →
pancreas and their functions? increases blood glucose.
Which cells of the pancreas release Beta cells release insulin; Alpha cells release glucagon.
insulin and glucagon?
What are the four components of Plasma (liquid), RBCs (O₂ transport), WBCs
blood? (immunity), Platelets (clotting).
What is plasma composed of? Water, proteins, electrolytes.
What is the normal pH range for blood? 7.35-7.45.
What hormone stimulates RBC EPO.
production?
What triggers the release of EPO? Low oxygen.
Stuvia 2026-2027
, Anatomy & Physiology 2 Final Exam Study Guide
What organ releases EPO? Kidneys.
What nutrients are required for Iron, B12, Folate.
erythropoiesis?
Describe the structure of hemoglobin. It has four subunits.
How many oxygen molecules can It can carry 4 O₂.
hemoglobin carry?
What are the different types of anemia? Iron deficiency, pernicious (B12), aplastic, hemorrhagic,
hemolytic.
What are the five types of leukocytes Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils,
from most to least abundant? Basophils.
Describe the ABO blood groups and A → A antigen, anti-B; B → B antigen, anti-A; AB →
their antigens and antibodies. both, no antibodies; O → none, both antibodies.
Which blood type is the universal O.
donor?
Which blood type is the universal AB.
recipient?
Describe the pathway of blood flow Vena cava → RA → tricuspid → RV → pulmonary valve
through the heart. → lungs → LA → mitral → LV → aorta.
Stuvia 2026-2027
What is a hormone? A chemical messenger released into the bloodstream to
target cells.
What are the two major classes of Steroid (lipid-soluble): cortisol, estrogen; Non-steroid
hormones and examples of each? (water-soluble): insulin.
What is a negative feedback system? Output shuts off original stimulus, maintaining
homeostasis.
What are the three ways hormones may Hormonal, humoral (ion/nutrient levels), neural.
be stimulated for production and
secretion?
What are the six anterior pituitary GH - growth; TSH - stimulates thyroid; ACTH -
hormones and their functions? stimulates adrenal cortex; FSH - gamete production;
LH - ovulation/testosterone; Prolactin - milk production.
What is the function of thyroid Increases metabolism.
hormone?
What hormone stimulates thyroid TSH.
hormone release?
What are the two hormones involved in PTH → increases blood Ca²⁺; Calcitonin → decreases
calcium homeostasis? blood Ca²⁺.
What is the function of aldosterone? Increases Na⁺ & water reabsorption, increasing blood
pressure.
What triggers the release of Low blood pressure, low Na⁺, high K⁺.
aldosterone?
Stuvia 2026-2027
, Anatomy & Physiology 2 Final Exam Study Guide
Which hormone is antagonistic to ANP.
aldosterone?
What organ secretes ANP? Heart.
What hormones are released by the Epinephrine → fight/flight; Cortisol → increases
adrenal gland in response to stress? glucose.
What hormones are secreted by the Insulin → decreases blood glucose; Glucagon →
pancreas and their functions? increases blood glucose.
Which cells of the pancreas release Beta cells release insulin; Alpha cells release glucagon.
insulin and glucagon?
What are the four components of Plasma (liquid), RBCs (O₂ transport), WBCs
blood? (immunity), Platelets (clotting).
What is plasma composed of? Water, proteins, electrolytes.
What is the normal pH range for blood? 7.35-7.45.
What hormone stimulates RBC EPO.
production?
What triggers the release of EPO? Low oxygen.
Stuvia 2026-2027
, Anatomy & Physiology 2 Final Exam Study Guide
What organ releases EPO? Kidneys.
What nutrients are required for Iron, B12, Folate.
erythropoiesis?
Describe the structure of hemoglobin. It has four subunits.
How many oxygen molecules can It can carry 4 O₂.
hemoglobin carry?
What are the different types of anemia? Iron deficiency, pernicious (B12), aplastic, hemorrhagic,
hemolytic.
What are the five types of leukocytes Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils,
from most to least abundant? Basophils.
Describe the ABO blood groups and A → A antigen, anti-B; B → B antigen, anti-A; AB →
their antigens and antibodies. both, no antibodies; O → none, both antibodies.
Which blood type is the universal O.
donor?
Which blood type is the universal AB.
recipient?
Describe the pathway of blood flow Vena cava → RA → tricuspid → RV → pulmonary valve
through the heart. → lungs → LA → mitral → LV → aorta.
Stuvia 2026-2027
