WGU C952 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 2026-2027 –
COMPLETE STUDY GUIDE & KEY CONCEPTS PIPELINING,
CPU PERFORMANCE, MEMORY & PARALLELISM LATEST
EDITION RATED A+
Computer Abstract/ Tech
2.1 Introduction
information revolution
Computers have led to a third revolution for civilization, with the information
revolution taking its place alongside the agricultural and the industrial revolutions.
Personal computer
Personal computer (PC): A computer designed for use by an individual, usually
incorporating a graphics display, a keyboard, and a mouse.
PC
Personal computer (PC): A computer designed for use by an individual, usually
incorporating a graphics display, a keyboard, and a mouse.
Server
Server: A computer used for running larger programs for multiple users, often
simultaneously, and typically accessed only via a network.
Supercomputer
Supercomputer: A class of computers with the highest performance and cost; they
are configured as servers and typically cost tens to hundreds of millions of dollars.
Embedded computer
Embedded computer: A computer inside another device used for running one
predetermined application or collection of software.
processor cores
Many embedded processors are designed using processor cores, a version of a
processor written in a hardware description language, such as Verilog or VHDL.
Personal mobile devices
Personal mobile devices (PMDs) are small wireless devices to connect to the Internet;
they rely on batteries for power, and software is installed by downloading apps.
Conventional examples are
smart phones and tablets.
PMDs
Personal mobile devices (PMDs) are small wireless devices to connect to the Internet;
they rely on batteries for power, and software is installed by downloading apps.
Conventional examples are
,smart phones and tablets.
Warehouse Scale Computers
Taking over from the conventional server is Cloud Computing, which relies upon giant
datacenters that are now known as Warehouse Scale Computers (WSCs).
Cloud computing
Cloud computing refers to large collections of servers that provide services over the
Internet; some providers rent dynamically varying numbers of servers as a utility.
Software as a Service
Software as a Service (SaaS) delivers software and data as a service over the
Internet, usually via a thin program such as a browser that runs on local client
devices, instead of binary code that
must be installed, and runs wholly on that device. Examples include web search and
social networking.
Multicore microprocessor
Multicore microprocessor: A microprocessor containing multiple processors ("cores")
in a single integrated circuit.
Acronym
Acronym: A word constructed by taking the initial letters of a string of words. For
example: RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory, and CPU is an acronym for
Central Processing Unit.
Terabyte (TB)
Terabyte (TB): Originally 1,099,511,627,776 (240) bytes, although communications
and secondary storage systems developers started using the term to mean
1,000,000,000,000 (1012) bytes.
tebibyte (TiB)
To reduce confusion, we now use the term tebibyte (TiB) for 240 bytes, defining
terabyte (TB) to mean 1012 bytes.
2.2 Eight great ideas in computer architecture
Moore's Law
Moore's Law states that integrated circuit resources double every 18-24 months.
abstractions
A major productivity technique for hardware and software is to use abstractions to
characterize the design at different levels of representation; lower-level details are
hidden to offer a simpler model at higher levels.
common case
Making the common case fast will tend to enhance performance better than
,optimizing the rare case.
parallel
Since the dawn of computing, computer architects have offered designs that get
more performance by computing operations in parallel.
pipelining
A particular pattern of parallelism is so prevalent in computer architecture that it
merits its own
name: pipelining, which moves multiple operations through hardware units that each
do a piece of an operation, akin to water flowing through a pipeline.
prediction
The idea of prediction is that, in some cases it can be faster on average to guess and
start working rather than wait until you know for sure, assuming that the mechanism
to recover from a
misprediction is not too expensive and your prediction is relatively accurate.
hierarchy of memories
Architects have found that they can address conflicting demands of fast, large, and
cheap
memory with a hierarchy of memories, with the fastest, smallest, and most expensive
memory per bit at the top of the hierarchy and the slowest, largest, and cheapest per
bit at the bottom.
hierarchy of memories
Architects have found that they can address conflicting demands of fast, large, and
cheap
memory with a hierarchy of memories, with the fastest, smallest, and most expensive
memory per bit at the top of the hierarchy and the slowest, largest, and cheapest per
bit at the bottom.
dependable
Since any physical device can fail, we make systems dependable by including
redundant components that can take over when a failure occurs and to help detect
failures.
2.3 Below your program
Systems software
Systems software: Software that provides services that are commonly useful,
including operating systems, compilers, loaders, and assemblers.
Operating system
Operating system: Supervising program that manages the resources of a computer
for the benefit of the programs that run on that computer.
, Compiler
Compiler: A program that translates high-level language statements into assembly
language statements.
binary numbers
The two symbols for these two letters are the numbers 0 and 1, and we commonly
think of the computer language as numbers in base 2, or binary numbers.
Binary digit
Binary digit: Also called a bit. One of the two numbers in base 2 (0 or 1) that are the
components of information.
bit
Binary digit: Also called a bit. One of the two numbers in base 2 (0 or 1) that are the
components of information.
Instruction
Instruction: .
Assembler
Assembler: A program that translates a symbolic version of instructions into the
binary version.
Assembly language
Assembly language: A symbolic representation of machine instructions.
Machine language
Machine language: A binary representation of machine instructions.
High-level programming language
High-level programming language: A portable language such as C, C++, Java, or
Visual Basic that is composed of words and algebraic notation that can be translated
by a compiler into assembly language.
2.4 Under the covers
Input device
Input device: A mechanism through which the computer is fed information, such as a
keyboard.
Output device
Output device: A mechanism that conveys the result of a computation to a user, such
as a display, or to another computer.
COMPLETE STUDY GUIDE & KEY CONCEPTS PIPELINING,
CPU PERFORMANCE, MEMORY & PARALLELISM LATEST
EDITION RATED A+
Computer Abstract/ Tech
2.1 Introduction
information revolution
Computers have led to a third revolution for civilization, with the information
revolution taking its place alongside the agricultural and the industrial revolutions.
Personal computer
Personal computer (PC): A computer designed for use by an individual, usually
incorporating a graphics display, a keyboard, and a mouse.
PC
Personal computer (PC): A computer designed for use by an individual, usually
incorporating a graphics display, a keyboard, and a mouse.
Server
Server: A computer used for running larger programs for multiple users, often
simultaneously, and typically accessed only via a network.
Supercomputer
Supercomputer: A class of computers with the highest performance and cost; they
are configured as servers and typically cost tens to hundreds of millions of dollars.
Embedded computer
Embedded computer: A computer inside another device used for running one
predetermined application or collection of software.
processor cores
Many embedded processors are designed using processor cores, a version of a
processor written in a hardware description language, such as Verilog or VHDL.
Personal mobile devices
Personal mobile devices (PMDs) are small wireless devices to connect to the Internet;
they rely on batteries for power, and software is installed by downloading apps.
Conventional examples are
smart phones and tablets.
PMDs
Personal mobile devices (PMDs) are small wireless devices to connect to the Internet;
they rely on batteries for power, and software is installed by downloading apps.
Conventional examples are
,smart phones and tablets.
Warehouse Scale Computers
Taking over from the conventional server is Cloud Computing, which relies upon giant
datacenters that are now known as Warehouse Scale Computers (WSCs).
Cloud computing
Cloud computing refers to large collections of servers that provide services over the
Internet; some providers rent dynamically varying numbers of servers as a utility.
Software as a Service
Software as a Service (SaaS) delivers software and data as a service over the
Internet, usually via a thin program such as a browser that runs on local client
devices, instead of binary code that
must be installed, and runs wholly on that device. Examples include web search and
social networking.
Multicore microprocessor
Multicore microprocessor: A microprocessor containing multiple processors ("cores")
in a single integrated circuit.
Acronym
Acronym: A word constructed by taking the initial letters of a string of words. For
example: RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory, and CPU is an acronym for
Central Processing Unit.
Terabyte (TB)
Terabyte (TB): Originally 1,099,511,627,776 (240) bytes, although communications
and secondary storage systems developers started using the term to mean
1,000,000,000,000 (1012) bytes.
tebibyte (TiB)
To reduce confusion, we now use the term tebibyte (TiB) for 240 bytes, defining
terabyte (TB) to mean 1012 bytes.
2.2 Eight great ideas in computer architecture
Moore's Law
Moore's Law states that integrated circuit resources double every 18-24 months.
abstractions
A major productivity technique for hardware and software is to use abstractions to
characterize the design at different levels of representation; lower-level details are
hidden to offer a simpler model at higher levels.
common case
Making the common case fast will tend to enhance performance better than
,optimizing the rare case.
parallel
Since the dawn of computing, computer architects have offered designs that get
more performance by computing operations in parallel.
pipelining
A particular pattern of parallelism is so prevalent in computer architecture that it
merits its own
name: pipelining, which moves multiple operations through hardware units that each
do a piece of an operation, akin to water flowing through a pipeline.
prediction
The idea of prediction is that, in some cases it can be faster on average to guess and
start working rather than wait until you know for sure, assuming that the mechanism
to recover from a
misprediction is not too expensive and your prediction is relatively accurate.
hierarchy of memories
Architects have found that they can address conflicting demands of fast, large, and
cheap
memory with a hierarchy of memories, with the fastest, smallest, and most expensive
memory per bit at the top of the hierarchy and the slowest, largest, and cheapest per
bit at the bottom.
hierarchy of memories
Architects have found that they can address conflicting demands of fast, large, and
cheap
memory with a hierarchy of memories, with the fastest, smallest, and most expensive
memory per bit at the top of the hierarchy and the slowest, largest, and cheapest per
bit at the bottom.
dependable
Since any physical device can fail, we make systems dependable by including
redundant components that can take over when a failure occurs and to help detect
failures.
2.3 Below your program
Systems software
Systems software: Software that provides services that are commonly useful,
including operating systems, compilers, loaders, and assemblers.
Operating system
Operating system: Supervising program that manages the resources of a computer
for the benefit of the programs that run on that computer.
, Compiler
Compiler: A program that translates high-level language statements into assembly
language statements.
binary numbers
The two symbols for these two letters are the numbers 0 and 1, and we commonly
think of the computer language as numbers in base 2, or binary numbers.
Binary digit
Binary digit: Also called a bit. One of the two numbers in base 2 (0 or 1) that are the
components of information.
bit
Binary digit: Also called a bit. One of the two numbers in base 2 (0 or 1) that are the
components of information.
Instruction
Instruction: .
Assembler
Assembler: A program that translates a symbolic version of instructions into the
binary version.
Assembly language
Assembly language: A symbolic representation of machine instructions.
Machine language
Machine language: A binary representation of machine instructions.
High-level programming language
High-level programming language: A portable language such as C, C++, Java, or
Visual Basic that is composed of words and algebraic notation that can be translated
by a compiler into assembly language.
2.4 Under the covers
Input device
Input device: A mechanism through which the computer is fed information, such as a
keyboard.
Output device
Output device: A mechanism that conveys the result of a computation to a user, such
as a display, or to another computer.
