WGU C180 Foundations of Psychology –
Academic Year 2026/2027 –
Comprehensive Examination
ACTUAL QUESTIONS
Domain 1: Foundations of Psychology and Research Methods
Question 1. Which early school of psychology focused on identifying the basic
elements of consciousness through introspection?
A. Functionalism
B. Structuralism
C. Behaviorism
D. Gestalt psychology
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: Structuralism, associated with Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener,
sought to analyze the structure of the mind by breaking consciousness into its
elemental components using introspection.
Question 2. A researcher manipulates the amount of sleep participants receive
and measures their subsequent reaction times. What is the independent
variable?
A. Reaction time
B. Amount of sleep
C. Participant age
D. Time of day
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: The independent variable is the factor the experimenter systematically
manipulates. In this design, sleep duration is controlled by the researcher, while
reaction time is the dependent variable that is measured.
Question 3. Which research method allows psychologists to determine cause-
and-effect relationships?
A. Naturalistic observation
B. Case study
C. Correlational study
,D. Experiment
Correct Answer: D
Rationale: Only true experiments, which involve random assignment and
manipulation of an independent variable, can support causal inferences. Other
methods describe relationships or behaviors but cannot isolate causation.
Question 4. A correlation coefficient of –0.85 indicates which type of
relationship?
A. Strong positive correlation
B. Weak negative correlation
C. Strong negative correlation
D. No relationship
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: A correlation coefficient close to -1.0 indicates a strong negative
relationship, meaning as one variable increases, the other decreases.
Question 5. Which perspective in psychology emphasizes the influence of
unconscious drives and conflicts on behavior?
A. Behavioral
B. Cognitive
C. Psychodynamic
D. Humanistic
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The psychodynamic perspective, originated by Sigmund Freud, focuses
on how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, thoughts, and
feelings.
Question 6. What is the primary focus of the humanistic perspective in
psychology?
A. Observable behavior
B. Unconscious conflicts
C. Self-actualization and personal growth
D. Cognitive processes
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The humanistic perspective, championed by Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow, emphasizes human potential, free will, and the drive toward self-
actualization and personal growth.
,Question 7. Which type of research involves in-depth study of a single
individual or small group?
A. Survey
B. Experiment
C. Case study
D. Naturalistic observation
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or
event, often used to study rare phenomena or generate hypotheses.
Question 8. A researcher wants to study the behavior of children on a
playground without interfering. Which method is most appropriate?
A. Experiment
B. Naturalistic observation
C. Survey
D. Case study
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in their natural
environment without manipulation or interference, making it ideal for studying
playground behavior.
Question 9. What is the purpose of random assignment in an experiment?
A. To ensure the sample is representative of the population
B. To minimize pre-existing differences between groups
C. To increase the correlation coefficient
D. To ensure the dependent variable is reliable
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: Random assignment ensures that each participant has an equal chance of
being placed in any group, minimizing pre-existing differences and allowing for
causal conclusions.
Question 10. Which ethical principle requires researchers to explain the true
purpose of a study to participants after it is completed?
A. Informed consent
B. Debriefing
C. Confidentiality
D. Deception
Correct Answer: B
, Rationale: Debriefing is the post-experimental explanation of a study's purpose and
procedures, especially important if deception was used.
Question 11. What is the measure of central tendency that is most affected by
extreme scores (outliers)?
A. Median
B. Mode
C. Mean
D. Range
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The mean is the arithmetic average and is highly sensitive to extreme
scores. The median is the middle score and is less affected by outliers.
Question 12. Which statistical measure describes the spread or variability of a
set of scores?
A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. Standard deviation
Correct Answer: D
Rationale: Standard deviation is a measure of how much scores vary around the
mean, providing an indication of the spread of the data.
Question 13. In a normal distribution, what percentage of scores falls within
one standard deviation of the mean?
A. 50%
B. 68%
C. 95%
D. 99%
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: In a normal distribution, approximately 68% of scores fall within one
standard deviation above and below the mean, 95% within two, and 99.7% within
three.
Question 14. What is an operational definition?
A. A statement of the procedures used to define research variables
B. A general statement about the purpose of the study
C. A summary of the research findings
D. A description of the participant sample
Academic Year 2026/2027 –
Comprehensive Examination
ACTUAL QUESTIONS
Domain 1: Foundations of Psychology and Research Methods
Question 1. Which early school of psychology focused on identifying the basic
elements of consciousness through introspection?
A. Functionalism
B. Structuralism
C. Behaviorism
D. Gestalt psychology
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: Structuralism, associated with Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener,
sought to analyze the structure of the mind by breaking consciousness into its
elemental components using introspection.
Question 2. A researcher manipulates the amount of sleep participants receive
and measures their subsequent reaction times. What is the independent
variable?
A. Reaction time
B. Amount of sleep
C. Participant age
D. Time of day
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: The independent variable is the factor the experimenter systematically
manipulates. In this design, sleep duration is controlled by the researcher, while
reaction time is the dependent variable that is measured.
Question 3. Which research method allows psychologists to determine cause-
and-effect relationships?
A. Naturalistic observation
B. Case study
C. Correlational study
,D. Experiment
Correct Answer: D
Rationale: Only true experiments, which involve random assignment and
manipulation of an independent variable, can support causal inferences. Other
methods describe relationships or behaviors but cannot isolate causation.
Question 4. A correlation coefficient of –0.85 indicates which type of
relationship?
A. Strong positive correlation
B. Weak negative correlation
C. Strong negative correlation
D. No relationship
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: A correlation coefficient close to -1.0 indicates a strong negative
relationship, meaning as one variable increases, the other decreases.
Question 5. Which perspective in psychology emphasizes the influence of
unconscious drives and conflicts on behavior?
A. Behavioral
B. Cognitive
C. Psychodynamic
D. Humanistic
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The psychodynamic perspective, originated by Sigmund Freud, focuses
on how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, thoughts, and
feelings.
Question 6. What is the primary focus of the humanistic perspective in
psychology?
A. Observable behavior
B. Unconscious conflicts
C. Self-actualization and personal growth
D. Cognitive processes
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The humanistic perspective, championed by Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow, emphasizes human potential, free will, and the drive toward self-
actualization and personal growth.
,Question 7. Which type of research involves in-depth study of a single
individual or small group?
A. Survey
B. Experiment
C. Case study
D. Naturalistic observation
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or
event, often used to study rare phenomena or generate hypotheses.
Question 8. A researcher wants to study the behavior of children on a
playground without interfering. Which method is most appropriate?
A. Experiment
B. Naturalistic observation
C. Survey
D. Case study
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in their natural
environment without manipulation or interference, making it ideal for studying
playground behavior.
Question 9. What is the purpose of random assignment in an experiment?
A. To ensure the sample is representative of the population
B. To minimize pre-existing differences between groups
C. To increase the correlation coefficient
D. To ensure the dependent variable is reliable
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: Random assignment ensures that each participant has an equal chance of
being placed in any group, minimizing pre-existing differences and allowing for
causal conclusions.
Question 10. Which ethical principle requires researchers to explain the true
purpose of a study to participants after it is completed?
A. Informed consent
B. Debriefing
C. Confidentiality
D. Deception
Correct Answer: B
, Rationale: Debriefing is the post-experimental explanation of a study's purpose and
procedures, especially important if deception was used.
Question 11. What is the measure of central tendency that is most affected by
extreme scores (outliers)?
A. Median
B. Mode
C. Mean
D. Range
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The mean is the arithmetic average and is highly sensitive to extreme
scores. The median is the middle score and is less affected by outliers.
Question 12. Which statistical measure describes the spread or variability of a
set of scores?
A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. Standard deviation
Correct Answer: D
Rationale: Standard deviation is a measure of how much scores vary around the
mean, providing an indication of the spread of the data.
Question 13. In a normal distribution, what percentage of scores falls within
one standard deviation of the mean?
A. 50%
B. 68%
C. 95%
D. 99%
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: In a normal distribution, approximately 68% of scores fall within one
standard deviation above and below the mean, 95% within two, and 99.7% within
three.
Question 14. What is an operational definition?
A. A statement of the procedures used to define research variables
B. A general statement about the purpose of the study
C. A summary of the research findings
D. A description of the participant sample
